[How about this book] The Volga, Russia's 'Mother River'

Passing through Khazar and Kyivan Rus to the Moscow Principality
Advancing by defeating German forces during World War II
Reckless development of dams and power plants... Caspian Sea water levels decrease

The Volga River originates from the Valdai Hills in Tver Oblast, northwest of Moscow, and flows 3,530 km to the Caspian Sea. It is the longest river in Europe. The name Volga derives from a Slavic word meaning 'wetness' or 'moisture.' Just as major civilizations began around great rivers, the Volga holds significant meaning in Russian history. Russian poet and film director Yevgeny Yevtushenko (1933?2017) even sang, "We are Russians, we are children of the Volga."

Janet M. Hartley, Emeritus Professor at the London School of Economics and Political Science, compiles the history of Russia centered on the Volga River from the 7th century onward in her book The Volga: A History of Russia’s Greatest River. Professor Hartley primarily researched the history of Russia and Eastern Europe. The Volga was published in February 2021 and was selected as the Financial Times Book of the Year that same year.

With the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war in 2022, public interest in the histories of Russia and Ukraine increased. The Volga begins with the story of the Khazar Empire, which ruled a vast territory spanning present-day Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan from around 650 to the late 10th century. The Khazars flourished around the Volga River, which ran through the middle of their territory to the Caspian Sea. The Khazar capital, Itil, was a city built in the delta region where the Volga meets the Caspian Sea. Itil means 'great river' in Turkic.

Professor Hartley explains that the Khazars served as a buffer zone between the Byzantine Empire to the west and Islamic states to the south, with diverse religions and ethnicities. "The eastern part was inhabited by merchants practicing Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and paganism, originating from Persia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, Byzantium, Volga Bulgaria, Kievan Rus, and the northern parts of present-day European Russia," she notes.

[How about this book] The Volga, Russia's 'Mother River'

The Khazars were destroyed by the invasion of Kievan Rus in the late 10th century. Kievan Rus is a state that all three East Slavic nations?Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine?claim as the origin of their countries. After the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war, debates over the legitimacy of Kievan Rus have been highlighted as one of the causes of conflict between Russia and Ukraine.

Kievan Rus fell to the Mongol invasion in the 13th century and fragmented into numerous principalities. The largest among these was the Grand Duchy of Moscow (1283?1547). Russia claims to have inherited the legitimacy of Kievan Rus through the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In fact, the Grand Duchy of Moscow is the starting point of what we know today as Russia. The title of the Grand Duchy evolved into the Tsardom of Rus (1547?1721) and then the Russian Empire (1721?1917), which transformed into the world's first communist state, Russia, following the revolution during World War II. Professor Hartley also explains that the Grand Duchy of Moscow essentially was Russia.

Initially, the Grand Duchy of Moscow was a vassal state paying tribute to the Mongol Kipchak Khanate but gradually gained strength, expelled Mongol forces, and expanded its territory by conquering Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River. Professor Hartley explains that during the reign of Ivan IV, the Grand Duchy of Moscow became a multiethnic, multireligious empire by conquering Kazan and Astrakhan. Since the Grand Duchy of Moscow is the starting point of modern Russia, Professor Hartley closely examines how Russia established the foundation of its long history through various governance methods after the Grand Duchy period.

One notable governance method is serfdom. The Russian tsars granted land to noble landlords as a reward for military service. However, since landlords had to serve in the military, they could not cultivate the land themselves and pressured the tsar to legally bind peasants to the landlords as serfs in 1649. Russia maintained serfdom until 1861, the latest among European countries, which contributed to Russia lagging behind other European nations socially and economically.

Even in modern times, the Volga River continues to dominate the consciousness and actions of Russians. During World War II, wartime posters encouraging enlistment bore the slogan "Defend Mother Volga" alongside images of advancing Soviet troops. The Russian army turned the tide of World War II by defeating German forces in the industrial city of Stalingrad, which developed along the Volga River.

In the final chapter, Professor Hartley warns of the severe environmental destruction currently occurring along the Volga River. As seen in the space race with the United States, Russia invested heavily in science and technology since the Soviet era. Professor Hartley points out that this investment was possible because of the belief that science could conquer nature. This blind faith in science and technology led Russia to build large-scale dams and hydroelectric power plants around the Volga River to promote industrial growth without considering environmental impacts. As a result, environmental destruction is now easily observed along the Volga River.

For example, indiscriminate construction of dams and hydroelectric plants has affected the water levels and flow of the Volga. The sections of the Volga where water flows freely have significantly decreased, causing the time it takes for water to flow from the source to the Caspian Sea to increase from 50 days in the past to 180 days today?more than three times longer. The water level of the Caspian Sea has also been steadily declining. These environmental changes have altered the Caspian ecosystem and drastically reduced the harvest of beluga sturgeon, which produces high-quality caviar. According to Professor Hartley, immediately after the completion of the Volga Dam in Stalingrad in 1960?1961, the catch of beluga sturgeon dropped by about 80% and continues to decline.