[Lee Sang-hoon's Korean History] Injo's 'Princess Flight'... The Musket Technology Developed by Yi Gwal's Rebellion

Injo Rebellion Merit Subjects Yi Gwal Father and Son
Accused of Rebellion, Raised Troops

Japanese Troops Surrendered Before and After Imjin War
Skilled in Arquebus Use and Close Combat
Placed at Rebel Vanguard, Occupied Hanyang
Welcomed by the People

Professor Sanghoon Lee, Korea Military Academy

After the Imjin War (1592?1597), which shook the entire Joseon Dynasty, more than ten years passed, and in 1608, when King Seonjo died, Gwanghaegun, who had played a significant role during the Imjin War, ascended the throne. Gwanghaegun is widely known as a monarch who worked to rebuild Joseon after the Imjin War. However, Gwanghaegun was eventually dethroned by the Westerners (Seoin, 西人) faction led by Yi Gwi and Kim Ryu. Following this, Injo took the throne, an event known as the Injo Coup (Injo Banjeong, 仁祖反正).

In 1623, Yi Gwal (李适) was recognized as a second-class meritorious subject for his participation in the Injo Coup. He was soon appointed as Hansungbu-yun (Mayor of Hansung). Later, he served as a deputy commander under the supreme commander Jang Man (張晩) and was stationed in Yeongbyeon, Pyeongan Province, as the Pyeongan Byeongsa (Military Commander of Pyeongan Province). However, in 1624, there was an accusation that Yi Gwal and his son Yi Jeon were plotting a rebellion. Although the accusation was proven false, the court dispatched the Geumbu Dosa (禁府都事) and Seonjeon-gwan (宣傳官) to Yeongbyeon to investigate whether Yi Jeon was involved in treason. Believing he could not remain safe, Yi Gwal beheaded these officials and initiated a rebellion.

On January 22, 1624, Yi Gwal began marching south with Han Myeong-ryeon (韓明璉), Yi Su-baek (李守白), and Gi Ik-heon (奇益獻). The rebel forces rapidly advanced southward through Suncheon-Jasan-Junghwa in Pyeongan Province and Suan-Hwangju-Pyeongsan in Hwanghae Province. Along the way, they engaged in battles with government troops and won, reaching Gaeseong and Byeokje in Gyeonggi Province. King Injo fled to Gongju in Chungcheong Province, and on February 9, Yi Gwal's rebel forces occupied Hanyang (present-day Seoul).

Yi Gwal proclaimed Prince Heungan (興安君) Yi Je, the tenth son of King Seonjo, as king. However, starting with the battle at Anhyeon (鞍峴) northwest of Hanyang on February 11, the tide of the war completely turned. Supreme Commander Jang Man reorganized his troops and, after capturing Anhyeon, won a decisive battle against Yi Gwal's rebels. Yi Gwal fled to Icheon in Gyeonggi Province with a small number of soldiers. Eventually, Yi Gwal's subordinates Yi Su-baek and Gi Ik-heon beheaded Yi Gwal and Han Myeong-ryeon and surrendered to the government forces, ending the rebellion.

The Only Incident in Joseon History Where the King Left the Capital Due to a Rebellion

King Injo returned to the capital, rewarded those who contributed to quelling the rebellion, and restored public order. The impact of Yi Gwal's rebellion was considerable. The occupation of the capital by rebel forces was unprecedented in Joseon history. Both the rebels and government troops were military forces responsible for the northwest region. Consequently, the military strength in the northwest region weakened sharply after the rebellion. After the rebellion's failure, Han Myeong-ryeon's son Han Yun (韓潤) and others fled to the Later Jin (후금, Hujin), informing them of the unstable domestic situation.

Yi Gwal was regarded as the epitome of a traitor throughout the late Joseon period. However, the cause of his rebellion lay in the political factionalism (gichal, 譏察), and it is important to consider that Yi Gwal's rebel forces were welcomed by the people when they entered the capital. Despite the rebellion, there was no recruitment of soldiers in the capital. Few people followed King Injo during his flight to Gongju. When Yi Gwal entered the capital, many people sought to defect to him. The people perceived Yi Gwal's rebellion as a situation similar to the Injo Coup.

Yi Gwal was able to occupy the capital because the rebel military forces stationed in the northwest region were strong. At that time, Yi Gwal commanded over 12,000 soldiers, including troops from Pyeongan Province and 12,000 reinforcement soldiers (Bubanggun, 赴防軍) who came from Jeolla Province, as well as about 130 Hangwae (降倭). Hangwae were Japanese soldiers who had surrendered around the time of the Imjin War. These approximately 130 Hangwae, who had come north as reinforcement troops, actively participated in Yi Gwal's rebellion.

During the rebellion, Yi Gwal placed the Hangwae, skilled in using matchlock guns and close combat, at the forefront. The Annals of King Seonjo (Seonjo Sillok) records, "Thirteen Hangwae led Ming troops into Daza (Mongolia), killing over 300 while only three Hangwae were killed." The 'Ubok Seonsaengjip (遇伏先生集)' states, "The traitor Yi Gwal placed a few Hangwae in the front ranks, and the government troops could not withstand them."

On March 14, 1624, King Injo gathered Chief State Councillor Yi Won-ik (李元翼), Prince Wanpung Yi Seo (李曙), and Training Commander Shin Gyeong-jin in one place to discuss military matters following Yi Gwal's rebellion. Yi Won-ik reported, "After the disturbance, there is almost no military equipment left, which is very regrettable." Shin Gyeong-jin added, "Many rural people have stolen matchlock guns; if we buy them with rice, we might recover them." Yi Won-ik further suggested, "If we reward those who provide weapons, many will be willing to supply them." This vividly shows the state of Joseon's military supplies after the Imjin War and Yi Gwal's rebellion.

On April 24, a proposal was made at the Bibyeonsa (State Council of Military Affairs): "On the occasion of the envoy's mission to Japan, have the Ministry of Taxation prepare several thousand rolls of Hwaseju (flower silk fabric) to purchase several thousand matchlock guns and distribute them to the Gyeonggi soldiers for training and readiness." On April 25, Yi Seo, who participated in the royal lecture (Gyeongyeon), reported, "The military equipment of the Dogam (military office) is almost gone after the disturbance; recently, only about 200 matchlock guns have been purchased from the market."

The situation was similar in May. Yi Seo expressed concern to King Injo that soldiers need weapons, but the military equipment of the Military Equipment Office (Gungisa, 軍器寺) and the Training Command (Hunryeondogam, 訓鍊都監) was in poor condition. He proposed arming 5,000 Gyeonggi soldiers with 2,000 matchlock guns and 3,000 bows. However, given Joseon's devastated state at the time, this was impossible.

Injo Nearly Overthrown by Rebellion
Obsessed with Mass Production and Distribution of Matchlock Guns
Proportion of Musketeers Increased by About Half

King Injo was obsessed with matchlock guns. Due to his strong will, the proportion of musketeers (Poseu, 砲手) increased. In 1649, the Chongyungcheong (摠戎廳), responsible for defending the outskirts of the capital, had about 5,400 musketeers. Soldiers without matchlock guns were supplied with 800 guns from the Training Command, and Chongyungcheong produced an additional 300 guns. By the late reign of Injo, the proportion of musketeers in local armies rose to over 40%. In just over 20 years, the composition of the Joseon army's troop types changed dramatically.

Especially in the northeastern border region of Hamgyeong Province, the proportion of musketeers exceeded half. In 1648, among the 8,000 soldiers under the Hamgyeong Provincial Government, 4,000 were musketeers. Unlike the central region, Hamgyeong faced harsh conditions. How did they manufacture and supply matchlock guns there?

Records that hint at matchlock gun production in Hamgyeong exist. They are the diaries of Park Chwi-mun (朴就文). The 'Bubuk Ilgi (赴北日記)' are diaries by Park Gye-suk (朴繼叔) and Park Chwi-mun, father and son, who each spent a year on border duty about 40 years apart. Both served in Hoeryeong (會寧), Hamgyeong Province.

In October 1645, Park Chwi-mun was assigned to a workshop with the task of producing 400 matchlock guns. The period was from October 29, 1645, to January 24, 1646, totaling 88 days. Actual production began on November 3, when forging started, so the effective production time was 83 days. During this period, 187 finished guns, 98 unfinished guns, and 3 hunting guns were produced. Including unfinished guns, a total of 288 guns were made.

The production speed at the Hoeryeong workshop was about three guns per day. At that time, the central Training Command produced about eleven guns per day. The production speed in Hamgyeong was lower than in the center. However, considering the number and skill of artisans, the number of forges and furnaces, it is impressive that nearly 300 matchlock guns were produced in about 80 days in Hoeryeong, Hamgyeong.

Matchlock gun production during King Injo's reign was remarkable in quantity, regardless of quality. Joseon experienced the Imjin War (1592), the Jeongyu War (1597), the Injo Coup (1623), Yi Gwal's Rebellion (1624), the Jeongmyo War (1627), and the Byeongja War (1636). After these successive wars, Joseon devoted great effort to the effective production and distribution of matchlock guns. However, it was like locking the barn after the horse was stolen. Military preparedness is best established before wars occur.

Professor Sang-Hoon Lee, Department of Military History, Korea Military Academy