[If You Know] Why Did Edo Era Samurai Willingly Commit Seppuku? (Part 1)

Disney+ 'Shogun' Depicts Edo Period and Tokugawa Era
Not Allowed in Muromachi Period... Changed During Sengoku Period
Considered a Sophisticated Suicide Requiring Cold Emotions and Composure
Used to Shift Responsibility from Superiors to Subordinates

The Disney+ series "Shogun" depicts the fierce power struggles in Japan around the year 1600. The protagonist, Yoshii Toranaga (played by Sanada Hiroyuki), is a character modeled after Tokugawa Ieyasu. He aims to overcome a period of intense social mobility, unify the country, and usher in a new era.

At that time, Japan’s shogunate control had significantly weakened due to the Onin War. Even the upper structures?emperor, kugyo (court nobles), temples, and shrines?collapsed, shaking existing authority and order to their roots. Lords and warriors across the regions strengthened their territorial control through military force and expanded their influence. Brutal survival competition continued, with frequent instances of rebellion against lords or usurpation of their positions. Political marriages to ensure clan survival or eliminate enemies were also common.

Thus, warlords nationwide began their rise by acquiring territories through their own power. Fundamentally, war was their destiny. Those who seized land focused all their efforts on defending it. Consequently, they sought more trustworthy lords?these were the daimyo (feudal lords owning many territories). Amid the proliferation of large and small warlords, some grew stronger, unified territories, and formed a central government.

The first to seize power, Oda Nobunaga, was a genius revolutionary who broke the old order with radical ideas. However, he neglected the problem of rebellion and was killed by his own retainer. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who succeeded in controlling the government, also failed to resolve internal contradictions within the warrior government and brought about his downfall by failing in the invasion of Korea.

The ultimate victor was Tokugawa. Though lacking genius talent or favorable timing, he repeatedly gritted his teeth and rose again to overcome crises. He endured what others could not and persevered in what others would not, achieving long-term rule.

How did he, once just a lord of Mikawa, grow into a massive daimyo controlling five regions and confidently win the Battle of Sekigahara? This article highlights his exquisite, seasoned, and meticulous leadership. It also explores the frequent occurrence of seppuku (ritual suicide) often depicted in "Shogun" and the culture of the Edo period.

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*During the Edo period, executions often occurred for reasons other than capital crimes or serious mistakes. Asano Nagakoto, lord of Hiroshima Domain, recalled matters related to meals as follows: "Sometimes foreign objects were found in food. We tried to hide them so others wouldn’t see, but large foreign objects were difficult to conceal and caused trouble. Once, for some reason, rat droppings were found, causing a big commotion. If left alone, the person in charge would have to commit seppuku, so we specially pardoned them."

*Seppuku was known in Europe as "harakiri." The decisive event was the Sakai incident. In February 1868, a Tosa retainer responsible for Sakai’s security killed French sailors, and eleven of them were disemboweled one after another in front of the French consul. They believed their actions demonstrated the spirit of Japanese men. Europeans only saw it as a barbaric custom.

*Seppuku was a method for samurai to atone for crimes, apologize for mistakes, avoid shame, make amends to friends, or prove their sincerity. Samurai regarded it as a refined suicide requiring extreme composure and calmness, considering it an honorable means of death. Retainers, peasants, and chonin (merchants and artisans) employed by samurai also often chose seppuku when committing suicide.

*In Japan, seppuku is said to have originated with Hakamadare, a notorious outlaw of the Heian period. Cornered by informers, he chose this extreme method. It is estimated that seppuku became established as a samurai suicide method after the Kamakura period. Many seppuku cases appeared during the late shogunate’s collapse.

*Okuma Miyoshi described samurai seppuku as follows: "The most demanded skill in the samurai way was martial prowess, and being skilled in martial arts was the samurai’s greatest pride and honor. (Omitted) It is natural that samurai who valued showing off their martial skills as a creed preferred seppuku, which required the greatest courage and strength, when they had to take their own lives. For them, suicide by hanging or jumping was considered a method for women or children and the most shameful for samurai." This view holds that seppuku became established as a samurai’s method of suicide because it required courage and strength. It was an era when dying in battle was honorable. Even if not dying in battle, samurai chose an equivalent death method to leave their names to posterity.

*In "Sosan Kidan," completed in 1739 by Yuasa Jo Zan, a retainer of Okayama Domain, an interesting conversation about Tokugawa Ieyasu and his retainer Naruse Misanari is recorded.

When Toyotomi Hideyoshi was inspecting horses in Osaka, there was a warrior riding a healthy black horse. When asked who he was, Tokugawa answered, "He is Naruse Gokichi, a retainer of the Tokugawa family." Hideyoshi asked repeatedly, "How much stipend does he receive?" "He receives 2,000 koku." "Hmm, if he served me, I would give him 50,000 koku." Later, Tokugawa called Naruse, explained the situation, and asked, "Would you serve Hideyoshi?" "What nonsense are you saying?" "No, it’s not like that. I’m telling you because it would be good for you to serve Toyotomi." Then Naruse shed tears and said, "Though I am unworthy and receive a stipend, it was foolish of me not to realize you think I could abandon my lord. I just want to commit seppuku as soon as possible to clear my mind."

It is not recorded that the method of suicide was seppuku. However, in the Edo period, if a samurai committed suicide, there was no method other than seppuku. This anecdote reveals the idea that the only way to show one’s true feelings to the lord was to disembowel oneself. It implies seppuku was not an ordered punishment but a proof of innocence. Conversely, if guilt was clear, there was no need to order seppuku; simply beheading the offender sufficed.

*In medieval society, samurai punishment was beheading. If resistance was expected, assassination was carried out. Even in Oshu, where seppuku is said to have originated, samurai punishment was beheading. In 1587, Date Masamune beheaded his retainer Koyama Shinsuke and stabbed his family with spears. In the same year, retainer Saito Yazaemon and his servants were also beheaded. Even samurai were not forgiven if guilty, and to avoid beheading, they had no choice but to commit seppuku.

*In the Muromachi period, even high-ranking samurai were not allowed to calmly disembowel themselves as in the Edo period. They did so only when forced. This form changed during the Sengoku period. When defeat was certain, lords chose seppuku to save their retainers’ lives. Shimizu Muneharu, lord of Bitchu Takamatsu, is a representative example. He was besieged by Hashiba Hideyoshi and committed seppuku. This shows the belief among warlords that if the leader committed seppuku, retainers would be spared.

*Samurai captured after defeat in battle were generally beheaded. Ishida Mitsunari, Konishi Yukinaga, and others defeated at the Battle of Sekigahara were beheaded. If a samurai was deemed worthy, seppuku was permitted. For example, Oda Nobunaga allowed seppuku as a special case if he considered the opponent a fine warrior, even if an enemy. This is also confirmed in "Chokkenki."

At the Battle of Anegawa, Oda’s army defeated Asakura Yoshikage’s forces and took many heads (war trophies). They captured Asakura’s retainer Kanemaki Yarokuzaemon alive. Oda asked Kanemaki, "You are a renowned warrior. How did you get captured?" "I was exhausted from fighting many times, so I was captured." Oda was moved by his honest answer. Through Asakura’s surrendered retainer Maenami Kurobee, he proposed, "If you survive, join us and guide us." Kanemaki replied, "I could not die loyally in front of my lord Yoshikage. I have no intention of surviving after capture. Please behead me quickly." When Maenami tried to behead him, Kanemaki said, "It is not uncommon for samurai to be captured by enemies, but being beheaded like a foot soldier is unthinkable. What I want is seppuku." Oda, upon hearing this, said, "Though an enemy, he is a man of loyalty. Untie his ropes and let him disembowel himself." He dispatched an examiner and permitted seppuku. Kanemaki ended his life by seppuku in 1573.

*Seppuku became the common form of execution for samurai during the Edo period. As the samurai class was established, seppuku was considered appropriate treatment for them.

*In the Edo period, seppuku was used not only as a means of suicide but also as a form of punishment. Strictly speaking, the latter was rare. Whether as punishment or taking responsibility, seppuku became established among samurai largely due to the influence of junshi (following one’s lord in death), which was popular in the early Edo period. Samurai often committed suicide voluntarily following their deceased lord. This is called "oibara" in historical records.

*When Tokugawa Ieyasu’s fourth son Matsudaira Tadayoshi died in 1607, retainers Inagaki Shoogen and Ishikawa Shume committed junshi. Ogasawara Genmotsu, who had been expelled and lived in Matsushima, Oshu, rushed to Edo upon hearing the news and also committed junshi. Ogasawara’s young concubine Sassa Kinai also disemboweled herself following her lord. This act of following a deceased lord in death is called double junshi (matajunshi). When Ieyasu’s second son Yuki Hideyasu died that year, retainers Tsuchiya Samasuke and Nagami Uemon also committed junshi. Tamura Kinbee, who beheaded Nagami, also committed junshi for his lord.

*Many experts interpret junshi as an act of love’s oath. They interpret it as expressing overflowing affection by wounding one’s own body. The purpose of junshi was not simply death but unification with oneself and the lord who favored them. Junshi practitioners were highly regarded and even became fashionable for a time. Some who committed junshi claimed to have received exceptional favor from their lord, even if the relationship did not warrant it.

*Until the Edo period, samurai rarely committed reckless seppuku except when facing desperate situations after defeat. However, with the popularity of junshi, seppuku became a common means of suicide for samurai in everyday life.

*Incidents of sword fights within Edo Castle were often settled by the offender’s seppuku. The most famous case was in 1701 when Asano Takuminokami Nagonori injured Kira Kozukenosuke Yoshinaka, the highest-ranking official of the K?ke. Asano drew his sword and attacked inside the castle. Kira was wounded, and Asano was ordered to commit seppuku without investigation. One year and nine months later, Asano’s 47 retainers raided Kira’s mansion in Honjo Matsuzakacho and beheaded him. The shogunate leadership, including Shogun Tsunayoshi, after much deliberation, ordered the attackers to commit seppuku. Originally, beheading would have been appropriate, but their act of avenging their lord was not recognized. It was deemed an act of defiance against the shogunate. One of the group, Oishi Kuranosuke, responded to the surrender order by saying, "I am grateful."

*The Edo shogunate surprisingly ordered seppuku for hatamoto (direct retainers) only rarely.

*Even the lowest-ranking samurai were allowed seppuku. However, depending on the crime, some were tied to wooden posts and stabbed with spears or beheaded.

*Non-samurai who committed capital crimes were beheaded. From a modern perspective, even minor offenses had no exceptions. A representative case was a servant of Natsume Iori, a retainer of Aizu Domain. The master was sentenced to seppuku for embezzlement and womanizing, but the servant fled fearing harm. He later surrendered but was beheaded.

*Seppuku as punishment became common in the Edo period. It was more a consideration for the samurai class. In the Muromachi and Sengoku periods, seppuku was allowed only for special samurai. Ordinary samurai who committed crimes were beheaded. Why were samurai ordered to commit seppuku in the Edo period? It relates to changes in samurai temperament. Until the Sengoku period, samurai did not readily obey seppuku orders. They could flee and serve another lord or resist if escape was impossible. It was not an era where simply ordering seppuku ended matters. If seppuku was to be done, it was only conceivable as a way to prove innocence by disembowelment. After the establishment of the Edo shogunate and the implementation of reforms in various domains, samurai could no longer live outside their organizations. Even if they fled from one domain, other domains would not accept them. Thus, if the lord ordered death, they had to obey. Lords allowed seppuku as a consideration for samurai status. Initially, military pressure was applied to force seppuku. Along with the order, troops often surrounded the retainer’s residence. If the retainer did not commit seppuku, they were attacked. Eventually, samurai obediently disemboweled themselves when ordered. Some even disemboweled themselves first, admitting their guilt and apologizing. Seppuku became inseparable from samurai.

*"Montanus Nihonshi" is a book written by Dutch pastor Montanus based on extensive records left by Christian missionaries and Dutch envoys. It was published in Amsterdam in 1669. German, English, and French editions followed, making it the most widely read introduction to Japan in Europe at the time. Montanus never visited Japan, so many illustrations depict strange customs of unknown origin. Regarding seppuku, it states: "If they choose to execute themselves, they cut open their abdomen. Often with astonishing courage, they cut their belly sideways in a terrifying manner. When their intestines are exposed, they immediately bow their head to be beheaded. They ask an assistant to cut their neck. They regard this assistant as the kindest person."

*Montanus quoted a letter from Jesuit missionary Gaspar Vilela dated October 1557, introducing seppuku almost accurately: "When the king imposes this execution on someone, he sends a messenger to notify the date of death. The punished person never tries to escape or flee. They hope to be allowed to commit suicide by the king’s order, and when permitted, they consider it the highest honor. At the appointed time, they dress in their finest clothes and cut open their belly."

*An important concept surrounding seppuku is that a retainer’s life belongs to the lord, and if the lord orders death, one cannot refuse. There was a habit of obeying even unreasonable orders from the lord. In the early Edo period, many samurai were willing to fight directly against their lord. However, independent samurai gradually decreased. Those around them forced others to commit seppuku to hide resistance to the lord. Thus, the lord existed as a power with life-and-death authority over retainers. This absolute lord concept is a feature of early modern bushido. Originally, a samurai’s life was to be "useful once for the lord." Samurai existed to be useful to their lord, and if they could offer their life to the lord, it was considered fortunate.

*Samurai did not hesitate to disembowel themselves for their lord. When such orders were given, they made relatives and friends disembowel themselves as well. This is called "tsumebara." If resistance was expected, the lord sometimes ordered direct killing. This is called "jooiuchi."

*Individual samurai seppuku was performed to protect the society centered on the domain lord. Most often, responsibility for crimes or misfortunes was borne by the offender’s seppuku. It was very rare for superiors to be held accountable. Recently, such samurai spirit was transplanted into military organizations. Armies often blamed strategy or tactical failures on soldiers or commanders on site. The Nomonhan incident, where a local commander was forced to commit suicide, clearly shows this. The fanatical "bushido spirit" before the war was used to shift responsibility from superiors to subordinates.

References: "Seppuku: How the Japanese Take Responsibility" (2013) by Yamamoto Hirofumi, translated by Lee Won-woo, published by Nonhyeong; "The Life and Leadership of Tokugawa Ieyasu" (2004) by Lee Gil-jin, published by Dong-A Ilbo; "People of the Tokugawa Era" (2017) by Koo Tae-hoon and Ryu Hee-seung, published by History Maker; "Tokugawa Ieyasu Human Management" (2022) by Domon Fuyuji, translated by Lee Jeong-hwan, published by Kyungyung Spirit; "The Sword of Patience" (2010) by Yamamoto Shichihei, translated by Park Sun-young, published by 21st Century Books; "Philosophy and Thought of the Tokugawa Era" (2000) by Minamoto Ryoen, translated by Park Kyu-tae, published by Yemun Seowon; "130 Years of Geopolitics in the Japanese Sengoku Period" (2022) by Cosmic Publishing, translated by Jeon Kyung-ah, supervised by Yabe Kentaro, published by Ida Media; "The Birth of the Plant City Edo" (2017) by Inagaki Hidehiro, translated by Jo Hong-min, published by Geulhangari, etc.