[Lee Sang-hoon's Korean History] Tattoos Existed Even in the Goryeo Dynasty

Participants of Myocheong's Rebellion Branded with 'Seogyeong Yeokjeok' on Forehead and Exiled to Island

Sanghoon Lee, Professor of Military Science at the Korea Military Academy

Unlike in the past, it is now common to see young people with tattoos. Tattoos, known as "tattoo" in English, are said to originate from the Tahitian word "tottow" used by the Polynesian Tahitians. It involves making cuts on the skin or piercing with needles to engrave letters, pictures, or patterns using paint or ink. In Chinese characters, it is called ipmok (入墨), jacheong (刺靑), gyeongmyeon, or jaja (刺字). Such tattoos were used as a form of punishment in pre-modern times.

In China, one of the corporal punishments
Used in late Tang Dynasty to prevent desertion

China once had a penal system consisting of five punishments: flogging (笞刑), beating with a stick (杖刑), penal servitude (徒刑), exile (流刑), and death penalty (死刑). These are known as the Five Punishments (五刑). Before this system, there was corporal punishment (肉刑), which directly inflicted punishment on the body, including castration, amputation of feet, cutting off the nose, tattooing, and death penalty. All five were considered severe punishments. Corporal punishment began during the Yin (殷) dynasty and continued until the early Han (漢) dynasty but was mostly abolished due to its cruelty. Instead, the Five Punishments system was adopted.

In 157 BCE, Emperor Wen (文帝) of Han abolished corporal punishment, and tattooing of criminals nearly disappeared. However, tattoos reappeared during the late Tang (唐) period. During the Song (宋) dynasty that followed Tang, laws regarding tattooing became more specific. The tattoo punishment continued through the Liao (遼), Yuan (元), Ming (明), and Qing (淸) dynasties. Tattooing was officially abolished only in 1905, in the 20th century.

The revival of tattooing, which had been abolished in early Han, occurred after the Huang Chao (黃巢) rebellion in late Tang. To prevent desertion among forcibly conscripted soldiers during the turmoil, tattoos were used. Usually, the unit name was tattooed on the face. Later, tattoos were applied to criminals’ faces, and during the Song dynasty, it became institutionalized as an official state punishment.

Military law (軍律) was established to regulate the army and soldiers. Because it applied in the special circumstances of battle and war, it had unique characteristics. In pre-modern times, most soldiers were conscripted forcibly, so there was naturally strong resistance to military service. To maintain discipline, it was necessary to overcome time constraints and maximize effectiveness. The fact that beheading was a significant punishment in military law reflects this. Soldiers who deserted were beheaded. Before executing deserters, unit names were tattooed on their faces to prevent desertion in advance.

During the Southern Song (南宋) period, economic development surged due to the development of the Jiangnan region and active trade. Along with this, the types of crimes related to economic activities diversified. The number of people receiving tattoo punishment increased significantly, and many were released under imperial amnesty decrees. As tattooed individuals returned to daily life, the stigma of tattoos inevitably diminished. Officials and clerks who had committed corruption resumed their activities. Tattoos even became fashionable among common people during this period. Tattoo artisans were called "chimpiljang" (針筆匠) in the Southern Song. The legislative intent behind reviving tattoo punishment in early Song gradually lost its effect.

Also appeared in Korea’s 'Samgukji Dongi-jeon' and others
Commoners tattooed during Goryeo period
Established as a form of punishment around 1136

Traces of tattooing also remain in ancient Korea. The Chinese historical text Samgukji (三國志) Dongi-jeon (東夷傳) "Mahan section (馬韓條)" states, "The men sometimes tattoo themselves," and the "Byeonjin section (弁辰條)" says, "Both men and women tattoo themselves similarly to the Wa people." The southern border was close to the Wa, so people tattooed their bodies. The "Wa people section (倭人條)" describes the tattoo customs of the Wa in some detail.

"Men of Wa, whether adults or children, tattoo their faces or bodies with ink. The Wa water people (水人) enter the water to catch fish, abalone, and shellfish, and tattooing was also to deter large fish or water birds. Later, it gradually became decorative."

Tattooing influenced by the Wa in ancient Korea gradually disappeared during the Three Kingdoms period. It reappeared during the Goryeo period, coinciding with the formalization of tattoo punishment in Song China. The Goryeodo-gyeong (高麗圖經), written after Song envoy Seo Geung (徐兢) visited Goryeo in 1123, states, "The customs of the Dongyi (Eastern Barbarians) include cutting hair, tattooing, engraving pictures on the forehead, and sitting cross-legged." This suggests that although not widespread, a considerable number of people in Goryeo had tattoos.

The first record of tattooing as a punishment in Goryeo appears around the time of the Myocheong (妙淸) rebellion. In January 1135, Myocheong rebelled in Seogyeong (西京). His forces blocked the area north of Jabiryeong (慈悲嶺) and controlled northwest Goryeo. The court appointed Kim Bu-sik as commander of the suppression army. The army besieged Seogyeong Fortress (Pyongyang Fortress) and launched a final attack in February 1136, ending the rebellion.

The rebellion leaders were beheaded and displayed in the marketplace for three days. Captured rebels were severely tortured. Those who resisted most strongly had the four characters "Seogyeong traitor (西京逆賊)" tattooed on their foreheads and were exiled to islands. Others had the two characters "Seogyeong (西京)" tattooed and were sent to villages and subordinate districts. Through the Myocheong rebellion, tattooing as a form of punishment officially appeared in Goryeo society.

'Chungsangho punishment' signified fall to ruled class
Serious crime excluded from King Chungsun’s amnesty

Goryeo’s legal code imitated Chinese law but adapted to local circumstances. In August 1185, a man from Namwon-gun (南原郡) had a bad relationship with a county official (郡吏). One day, he tied the official to a pillar and set his house on fire. The official died in the fire. The case was reported to the king, and officials recommended punishment for fighting and killing (鬪殺罪). The king ordered, "According to the crime, he shall be tattooed on the face and punished with chungsangho (充常戶刑)."

The records do not reveal who killed the official, but it is clear he had considerable power. The term "chungsangho" means to allocate to a regular household, differing from Chinese law. Since the person was tattooed and punished with chungsangho, he was evidently a powerful noble. Being subjected to chungsangho meant a change from the ruling class to the ruled class. Their descendants were excluded from taking the civil service examination (科擧) and entering the national academy (國學). In other words, it was a status punishment.

Exiles other than those sentenced to beheading or hanging could return to the capital through stages under royal amnesty: exile to an island (配島), moving to the mainland (出陸), returning home (歸鄕), and ascending to the capital (上京). Upon reaching the capital, they could pay respects to the king and be reinstated. Even if exiled, they were excluded from the ruling class but did not become residents of the exile area. Thus, even if punished with chungsangho, they did not completely fall from the ruling class to the ruled class. For officials, it meant suspension of status.

In January 1298, King Chungsun (忠宣王) issued a royal edict granting amnesty. He pardoned all crimes except beheading and hanging, allowed island exiles to move to the mainland, and return home. However, those who conspired rebellion, were disloyal or unfilial, committed murder or robbery, or had tattoos on their faces and were assigned to regular households were excluded. This shows that having a tattoo on the face was itself considered a serious crime.

Goryeo frequently faced foreign invasions and conducted overseas expeditions, often mobilizing large forces. Many soldiers violated military law or rebelled, and desertion was common. To prevent such manpower loss, military law was established. The most severe punishment, death penalty, paradoxically eliminated labor power. Therefore, tattoo punishment, just below death penalty, might have been preferred in Goryeo to preserve manpower.

Professor Sanghun Lee, Department of Military History, Korea Military Academy