"Korea Experienced Massacre Under Jeon Du-hwan Martial Law... The Cause of Democratic Backsliding Is the Attempt of Martial Law" [Democracy in Retreat]

① [Interview] Fabio Angiolillo, Researcher at the Varieties of Democracy Institute, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Clear Risk of Violence in Yoon's Attempt to Declare Martial Law
South Korea Now Classified as a Country Where Democratic Progress Has Stalled
Citizens United to Prevent Martial Law
Demonstrating the Strengths of South Korean Democracy

"The important point is not that violence was actually used. The core issue is the very fact that martial law was attempted to be declared."

Fabio Angiolillo, a researcher at the Varieties of Democracy Institute (V-Dem) under the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, which released a report stating that the level of democracy in South Korea is declining, said that the December 3 martial law incident was a decisive turning point for the downgrade. V-Dem, which annually indexes the level of democracy in countries worldwide, categorizes the democracy scale of 179 countries under evaluation into four types: liberal democracy, electoral democracy, electoral autocracy, and closed autocracy. Until 2023, South Korea was classified as a 'liberal democracy,' but in the report released this month on last year's results, it was downgraded one level to 'electoral democracy.'

Angiolillo, who led the writing of the '2025 Democracy Report,' cited President Yoon Suk-yeol's declaration of martial law, attacks on civil liberties, and overall instability in Korean society as causes of democratic regression in a video interview with Asia Economy on the 20th. He said, "The last time martial law was declared in South Korea was during the Chun Doo-hwan regime, when a large-scale massacre occurred. Even if this time martial law did not involve actual violence, considering past cases, the risk was clearly present."

Fabio Angiolillo, researcher at the Institute for Democracy and Diversity under the University of Gothenburg, Sweden (Source: University of Gothenburg website)

The following is a Q&A with researcher Angiolillo.

- What is the main reason for the downgrade in South Korea's level of democracy?

▲ The downgrade from liberal democracy to electoral democracy is mainly influenced by factors related to access to law and fair law enforcement. Until 2023, South Korea was evaluated as having very strong transparency and predictability in its laws. In other words, laws were enacted fairly and not arbitrarily enforced. However, events that occurred in South Korea last year naturally lowered the transparency and predictability of law enforcement. More precisely, it was due to the way martial law was implemented and its aftermath. President Yoon's implementation of martial law lacked a clear legal connection. The martial law incident became a major cause of increased unpredictability in South Korea's lawmaking. South Korea has been experiencing political turmoil for several months following the martial law incident.

- Among detailed indicators, the 'deliberative democracy index,' which measures whether political decisions are made from a public good and rational perspective, also saw a significant drop in ranking (36th in 2023 → 48th in 2024).

▲ Since President Yoon took office, some democratic elements have decreased. For example, infringements on press freedom and attempts to expand executive power are included. President Yoon's election campaign was also very aggressive. He attacked political opponents and used methods that polarized society. This became one of the causes that strengthened authoritarian politics in South Korea. While these factors weakened South Korean democracy, it is unclear whether this is a temporary phenomenon or a change in direction. As already stated in the '2024 Democracy Report,' President Yoon took coercive measures to punish officials from the Moon Jae-in administration and launched attacks on gender equality, lowering the level of democracy. This is called a 'bell-turn,' a phenomenon seen in countries where democracy is retreating. South Korea is included.

- Some in the ruling party argue that martial law is not a problem because there was no physical coercion. What are your thoughts on this?

▲ South Korea is a country with a very high level of democracy but still a very young democracy. It has long been under military regimes and has a history of violence by the military. Especially the massacres in the 1980s remain in the memories of many Koreans and are passed down to younger generations. In other words, Koreans are very well aware of what military intervention in politics and the declaration of martial law mean. The reason martial law was not actually enforced this time was not due to restraint by the ruling party but because citizens and opposition parties strongly opposed it. Citizens took to the streets to protest, and opposition leaders tried to block martial law in the National Assembly. It is more accurate to say that democracy was preserved thanks to the resistance of the opposition and citizens.

- The conservative camp claims there were fraudulent elections in the past, alleging manipulation of election procedures. How do you evaluate this?

▲ This is a common phenomenon worldwide. For example, former U.S. President Donald Trump did not concede defeat in the 2020 presidential election. When a losing candidate refuses to accept defeat, it is one of the factors threatening democracy. If political forces that do not accept defeat continue to deny election results, it is a dangerous sign that increases the possibility of a democratic country turning into an autocratic regime.

- Can President Yoon's personal traits be seen as influencing democracy, similar to President Trump?

▲ Yes. Presidents Trump and Yoon are similar types of leaders. They foster social conflict, define opposing forces as enemies, and use methods to strengthen their power. Such leaders do not simply weaken democracy through laws or policies but deepen social polarization and create a violent atmosphere. For example, Trump's incitement of the 2021 Capitol riot and President Yoon's attempt to declare martial law are both dangerous cases that weaken democracy.

- Authoritarian countries are increasing worldwide. What do you think is the reason?

▲ Anti-democratic political forces are increasingly being elected through elections. Representative cases include Erdo?an in Turkey, Modi in India, Orb?n in Hungary, and Bolsonaro in Brazil. After gaining power through elections, they gradually strengthen executive power and weaken democratic institutions. This is currently the biggest cause of the spread of authoritarianism worldwide.

President Yoon Suk-yeol is attending the 8th impeachment trial hearing held at the Constitutional Court in Jongno-gu, Seoul on the 13th of last month. <2025.2.13 Photo by Joint Press Corps>

- Do you think economic recession leads to a crisis of democracy?

▲ I believe economic decline and increasing inequality are among the fundamental causes of the emergence of anti-democratic parties. Voters tend to support certain parties in reaction to governments that slowed economic growth and deepened inequality. These factors influence election results and increase the likelihood of anti-democratic parties rising. High levels of inequality can be very dangerous for democracy.

- Denmark ranked first among all countries in the democracy report. What strengths does Denmark show in democracy?

▲ Denmark, as well as other top-ranking countries such as Estonia, Switzerland, and Sweden, show statistically insignificant differences. These countries maintain very similar levels of democracy. They adhere to very high standards of democratic principles overall. Election procedures are conducted extremely freely and fairly, and there is a strong will to uphold democratic principles in all parts of the political system. They maintain the highest levels in terms of access to law, judicial transparency, protection of individual freedoms, and ease of participation in civic and social organizations. No country in the world has scored a perfect 100 in democracy, but top-ranking countries including Denmark have excellent ability to thoroughly observe democratic principles and reflect them in policies and practices.

- How can South Korean democracy mature further?

▲ The greatest strength of South Korean democracy is the very high level of civil society and political participation. Especially the unity shown by citizens in the 2024 martial law prevention incident demonstrated the strengths of South Korean democracy well. It is important that citizens continue to maintain and develop their will to protect democracy.

Researcher Angiolillo

has specialized in research on the stabilization of authoritarian politics and dictatorship through political parties. He graduated from La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy (2016) and earned a master's degree in political science and international relations from the University of Bologna (2018). He received a Ph.D. in political science from the University of Hong Kong in 2023 and was a visiting researcher at Cornell University in the United States. In 2022, he received the Virginia Gray Award from the American Political Science Association for exploring the interaction between party-based dictatorships and citizens and its impact on regime survival.