[In Fact] Why Pig Bones Were Buried at a Cemetery Site in China (Part 2)

Exploring Pungsu and Funeral Culture in the Film 'Pamyo'
The Grave of Daewongun's Father Dug Up Recklessly
A Grudging Spirit Often Featured in Joseon Folktales
The Background of the Three-Day Funeral Becoming Common Today

'If you look closely,' it conveys useful information in a somewhat disorganized manner. These are tips for enjoying movies and series more interestingly.

*Following <Why Murayama Jijun Perceived Joseon as a Backward Country (Part 2)>

*In the past, morticians included feng shui masters who assessed feng shui. They consulted on issues such as relocating graves when new burial sites or reburial sites were deemed unsuitable. Occasionally, they sought excessive profits, so their reputation was not very good.

*Feng shui, which predicts the fortune or misfortune of the land, is broadly divided into Yangtaek (the dwelling place of the living) and Eumtaek (the resting place of the dead). The latter focuses on the condition of the remains (bones) of buried ancestors. In Eumtaek feng shui, it is believed that the energy of the dragon veins flowing through the land affects descendants through the remains. This is called sympathetic resonance.

*In Korea, there is a common belief that an ideal graveyard should be on a sunny, south-facing hill. Although remains inevitably decompose over time, it was believed that if drainage was good, only clean bones would remain, bringing happiness to descendants.

*In the past, China buried pig bones in prospective grave sites to examine the soil condition. If the buried bones turned yellow, the site was preferred; if black, it was avoided. Many descendants, eager for the benefits of Eumtaek feng shui, would exhume their parents' graves to check the color of the bones. As such unfilial acts continued, the government prohibited grave excavation by law. Joseon had similar regulations.

*According to Murayama Jijun's book "Feng Shui of Joseon," Gwanaksan, a rugged rocky mountain, corresponds to fire in the Five Elements theory and is considered an evil mountain. Because of this, fires frequently broke out in Seoul, including Gyeongbokgung Palace. To prevent this, a water jar was buried in the mountains of Namsan, and Haetae statues were placed at Gwanghwamun as a form of talismanic protection.

*The most famous feng shui building is the Shanghai Building in China, operated by Chinese and Jewish businessmen. It was designed by British architect Norman Foster. This ultra-modern building has 47 floors above ground and 4 underground. Various feng shui and talismanic devices are installed on the walls and inside. The design actively incorporated the opinions of Hong Kong feng shui master Ko Baek-ryeong.

*There are several cases in Korea where feng shui was considered during the design phase. The most famous building is the Independence Hall of Korea. It was built under the leadership of the Chun Doo-hwan government after an incident where Japanese history textbooks were distorted. It is located at the foot of Heukseongsan in Mokcheon-myeon, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do. This site has long been known as a prime location called Oryongjaengjujiji (the posture of five dragons competing for a pearl). The Cheonan Provincial Office, established by King Taejo Wang Geon of Goryeo in August 930 to pray for national unification, was also located here.

*Daewon-gun was fascinated with feng shui books from a young age and traveled across the country searching for auspicious sites. He enshrined his father, Namyeon-gun, at a prime site (at the foot of Gayasan) recommended by a geomancer. Perhaps thanks to the spiritual energy of the good land, 13 years after relocating the grave, his son Gojong ascended the throne. However, this place became more famous for rampant grave robbing than for its efficacy. In April 1868, a group of foreigners who landed on a nearby coast dug up Namyeon-gun's grave and reached the coffin. However, fearing the tide, they did not touch the coffin and withdrew. The leader of the grave robbing was a Jewish-German merchant named Oppert. Two years before the incident, he had unsuccessfully requested trade negotiations with Joseon in the Gyeonggi Bay area and resorted to this act. According to his later work "Forbidden Country Joseon Travelogue," he knew Daewon-gun was a believer in prophecy. A Korean guide incited him by saying that obtaining the epitaph engraved on Namyeon-gun's grave would grant power equivalent to controlling the capital Seoul, prompting the grave robbery. The plan to pressure Daewon-gun into trade failed. Upon hearing the news, Daewon-gun was very angry and adopted even stronger isolationist policies.

*The basis of feng shui is the flow of water, as it reveals the mountain's energy lines.

*In Korea, feng shui masters are broadly classified into four types. First is the grave feng shui master, who examines whether new or relocated gravesites are suitable and advises on relocation. Most work with morticians. Second is the academic type, mainly scholars and professors specializing in classical Chinese literature or Eastern philosophy. Third is the career changer type, who seek authentic feng shui by meeting feng shui masters or become engrossed in related history and change careers. Professor Choi Chang-jo, author of "Korean Feng Shui Thought," is a representative example, famous for giving up his professorship at Seoul National University to devote himself to feng shui research. Fourth is urban planning and architecture, where feng shui is considered mostly from an environmental perspective.

*Feng shui originated in ancient China. The northern regions were often gripped by fear due to cold north winds, while the southern regions experienced flooding from rain-laden south winds. Preventing natural disasters was a critical national issue. Feng shui was frequently used as a method to select land that avoided the harms of wind and water. It began as a standard for stabilizing dwellings and leading a harmonious life.

*Jangseogak was reportedly established in 1911 by the Joseon Governor-General by demolishing Jagyeongjeon next to Myeongjeongjeon, the main hall of Changgyeonggung Palace, and building Cheonsugak, modeled after Japanese architectural style, to suppress Joseon's energy lines. It was used as a museum and archive. Feng shui-wise, it was located on the left blue dragon side, and from the start, public opinion held it as a sinister plan to sever the Joseon dynasty's energy lines. Having already lost sovereignty to Japan, Joseon had no choice. The Japanese also built a zoo in Changgyeonggung, downgraded it to Changgyeongwon, and built a botanical specimen hall on the southern hill corresponding to the right white tiger, suppressing the blue dragon and white tiger that protected the main hall.

*The Joseon dynasty adopted Confucianism as the state ideology and organized all faiths and rituals accordingly. Establishing and managing ancestral rites at Jongmyo Shrine and Sajik Shrine are representative examples. Among the people, ancestral rites were performed according to "Zhuzi Jiali," and only ancestral worship was practiced as a universal ritual. Joseon strictly regulated unauthorized faiths or rituals as "eumsa." However, unlike Buddhism, Confucianism had fundamental problems as a faith system. There was no absolute deity to rely on. Confucianism lacked a system of self-prayer relying on gods or beliefs in the afterlife. It also lacked a system of prayers for the living (wishing for blessings and warding off disasters). Accordingly, traditional ancestral faith replaced the absolute deity, and feng shui, combined with mountain deity worship, filled the gaps in the self-prayer system.

*Joseon commoners embraced feng shui thought to actively practice filial piety toward ancestors?in other words, to find good burial sites. They filled the religious void in Confucianism by incorporating traditional faith. The goals of these faiths were strongly influenced by worldly desires. Feng shui folktales abounded, such as "Some prospered by having a good grave, while others ruined their families by having a bad one." Although the state tried to control people's rituals to dominate the spiritual world and establish Confucian social order, it arguably backfired.

*Buddhism exerted considerable influence until the early Joseon period, so grave feng shui beliefs were not much of a problem then. The situation changed in mid-Joseon, when feng shui beliefs became rampant, and mountain lawsuits (disputes arising from grave sites) frequently occurred.

*Feng shui was treated as a specialized technical profession in both Goryeo and Joseon societies. There was even an official examination called the Eumyanggwa (Yin-Yang Division) for appointing officials. This was a miscellaneous examination for the middle class. The Eumyanggwa, under the supervision of the Gwansanggam (Office of Astronomy), which was concurrently held by the Chief State Councillor, tested astronomy, science, and geography. For geography, four candidates were selected in the preliminary exam held every three years, and two were chosen in the final exam. These officials handled practical matters such as selecting and relocating palaces and royal tombs. The term "jigwan," commonly used for feng shui masters, originated from these officials.

*In the late Joseon period, influenced by feng shui thought, secret burials on others' mountains or forcibly occupying graves using power and wealth became frequent. Self-help actions to protect their grave territories also occurred. Mountain lawsuits were common. The term "sansong" (mountain lawsuit) first appeared in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty in the 5th year of King Hyeonjong's reign (1664) in a report from the Saganwon (Office of Censors).

*Many commoners in the Joseon era buried their dead within 100 steps of royal tombs or in the Geumjang district of Hanseong called Seongjeosip-ri. Some ignored state laws prohibiting this.

*There were many cases of "tu-jang" during the Joseon period. Tu-jang refers to secretly burying graves on landowners' property or cunningly encroaching on others' graves. For example, after determining a prime site, a white jar was buried with an inscription stating "So-and-so surveyed this place on such a day," which was later dug up to claim ownership. This is called maepyojeomsan. Other forms include "apjang," secretly burying within existing grave areas; "pyeongjang," burying without covering the mound to disguise it as flat land; and "gongjang," burying in restricted areas and placing scarecrows in the actual grave. All these are considered tu-jang.

*"Neukjang" refers to forcibly occupying land without the owner's consent, usually by aristocrats and officials. In the late Joseon period, wealthy commoners (mainly merchants colluding with government offices) also joined in land encroachment.

*Self-help actions refer to physically resisting grave encroachment. Representative cases include assaulting aristocrats under the pretext of mountain lawsuits, throwing filth into the grave pit, preventing burial by force, leading women to the mountain to obstruct burial, chasing away secret burials and desecrating coffins, digging graves and setting fire to coffins, and creating fake graves to deceive others. These actions were attempts to resolve rights violations by force rather than law. Some even exhumed and destroyed others' graves without official permission. Naturally, the Confucian Joseon dynasty treated all such acts as grave crimes.

*Patrilineal clan order was established in Joseon society during the 15th-16th centuries. Clan cemeteries, where graves of paternal relatives were gathered, expanded around this time. During the wars of the Japanese invasions and Manchu invasions, efforts to locate and relocate lost ancestral graves and organize clan cemeteries were active. The high interest of the aristocracy in clan graves combined with feng shui theory manifested as a desire to enshrine ancestors in auspicious sites.

*The intensification of mountain lawsuits in the late Joseon period reflects the dynamic social changes of the time. Society was undergoing upheaval with the development of commerce, an increase in the number of yangban (aristocrats), and a decrease in slaves, disrupting the social hierarchy. Among commoners, the desire for grand funerals increased, heightening the demand for auspicious burial sites.

*Confucianism in Joseon produced many folktales and legends with themes of reward and punishment to guide people on the right path. However, Confucianism lacks an afterlife belief system like Christianity's "heaven and hell" or Buddhism's "paradise and purgatory." Therefore, stories about the wicked being punished in this life were more common than tales of blessings after death. This explains the frequent appearance of vengeful spirits and graves in folklore.

*Modern-style cremation was introduced by the Japanese near the end of the Korean Empire. Cremation was conducted in crematories installed inside buildings. The Korean people, steeped in Confucian rituals for centuries, were reluctant to accept it. Combined with resistance to Japanese rule, it spread as a mistaken perception that it was "Japanese cremation methods" or "bad methods used only for unnatural deaths (children dying before parents)."

*The Joseon Governor-General established and promulgated the "Regulations on Burial and Cremation." Accordingly, a communal cemetery system was introduced, forcing everyone to be buried only in communal cemeteries. However, the deeply rooted family and clan cemetery traditions were too strong even for the Japanese, who quietly retreated. The communal cemeteries became places used reluctantly by Japanese residents in Korea and commoners with nowhere else to go.

*From the perspective of introducing an advanced system, mandating communal cemeteries for all cannot be criticized. However, using the pretext of reducing the evils of scattered graves nationwide to regulate cemeteries that hindered the exploitation of Joseon was a serious problem.

*The Joseon Governor-General enacted and enforced the "Ceremonial Rules," which drastically simplified traditional funeral customs under the pretext of "healthy funerals."

*There is no official record that the Korean Empire government lifted the ban on cremation before the 1910 Japan-Korea Annexation. It is difficult to say cremation was fully revived before the so-called "Regulations on Burial and Cremation" were promulgated in 1912. Previously, King Seongjong had banned cremation by national law.

*The first modern crematorium in Korea was established on May 10, 1902. Traditional cremation using firewood in open-air cremation grounds gradually disappeared into history.

*The "Regulations on Burial and Cremation" stipulate that burial or cremation cannot be performed within 24 hours after death. This mandatory time restriction is in line with the Goryeo-era rule prohibiting funerals within three days. It is presumed to have significantly influenced the current widespread practice of three-day funerals.

*Japanese imperialists had experienced failure implementing the "Regulations on Burial and Cremation" in colonial Taiwan due to major disputes. The situation in Joseon was no different. Although disputes and crimes related to graves visibly decreased, secret burials still flourished. Many clans, including Confucian scholars, vehemently opposed the regulations, claiming they disregarded Korean customs and traditions. Eventually, the colonial authorities had to revise the regulations to suit the sentiments and customs of the Korean people. Some interpret that the revision was a conciliatory measure under the guise of cultural policy after the colonial government faced strong resistance from the Korean people during the March 1st Movement.

*During the continuous social turmoil of liberation, the Korean War, the April 19 Revolution, and the May 16 military coup, followed by rapid economic development, the Korean government lacked the capacity to manage funeral policies. The most challenging period was the early 1960s. With high infant mortality and many young people dying prematurely, Seoul's cremation rate approached 50%. Poor crematorium facilities and the lack of proper columbariums led to negative perceptions of cremation and related facilities. Crematoriums and communal cemeteries located within or near cities were stigmatized as "urban unsuitable facilities."

*In Korea, park cemeteries managed by foundations began to be established from the late 1960s. Funeral halls appeared following the enactment of the "Family Rituals Act" in 1973. Despite significant changes, the essence of burial and Confucian-style funerals remained largely unchanged. From the late 1980s, as it became difficult to secure burial sites, cremation increased, and the somewhat alien culture of columbarium use began to take root.

*Until the enactment of the "Act on Burial and Cemeteries" by the military coup government in 1961, there was effectively no funeral-related law in Korea. Many committee members involved in drafting the law had been educated in Japanese-style law during the Japanese colonial period and worked in legal practice. Perhaps for this reason, the "Act on Burial and Cemeteries" closely mirrors Japanese law in title, definitions, and content. To put it bluntly, it can be said that postwar Japanese law was copied almost verbatim. The law on customs, which should have reflected Korea's unique traditions and customs, was imported from the country that once ruled us. As a result, Korean funeral culture took on a strong Japanese influence, at least in terminology.

*Funeral halls were established nationwide in the 1990s under the "Policy to Foster Professional Funeral Halls." Around that time, the government also implemented loan support programs for facility improvements in hospital-affiliated funeral halls. Consequently, the funeral industry centered on funeral halls flourished, while neighborhood morticians gradually disappeared.

References: Park Jeon-yeol et al., Hanuri Media, "The Origin and Cultural Industrial Function of Japanese Yokai Culture" (2005); Kim Yong-ui, Jeonnam National University Press, "The Folkloric World of Japanese Legends" (2013); Moro Miya, translated by Kim Kyung-ah, Ilbit, "Legend Japan" (2010); Cheon In-ho, Sejong Publishing, "Understanding Feng Shui Thought" (1999); Nozaki Mitsuhiko, Dongdowon, "Korean Feng Shui Masters" (2000); Lee Seok-jeong, Park Chae-yang, Choi Ju-dae, Brain Books, "Properly Honoring Ancestors Leads to Prosperous Descendants" (2007); Son Sook-hee, National Institute of Korean Studies, "Common People's Stories of Shamanism" (1997); Hong Tae-han, Minsokwon, "The World of Our Shamanic Rituals" (2009); Kim Hee-young, Minsokwon, "Murayama Jijun's Perception of Joseon through Folk Customs Research" (2014); Murayama Jijun, translated by Choi Soon-ae and Yoshimura Mika, Sina Publishing, "Life and Death of Joseon People in the 1920s-1930s" (2014); Murayama Jijun, translated by Choi Seok-young, Minsokwon, "Korean Modern Folklore Anthropology Series 2: Feng Shui of Joseon" (2008); Iwata Shigenori, translated by Jo Gyu-heon, Sohwa, "Birth of Japanese Funeral Culture" (2009); Jang Yoon-sun, Isup, "Communicating with Joseon Scholar Ghosts" (2008); Park Tae-ho, Seohae Munjip, "History of Funerals" (2006); Yoo Jae-cheol, Kim Young-sa, "The President's Funeral" (2022); Kim Young-min, Saemunsa, "Understanding Our Ancestral Faith" (2005), etc.