[If You Know] Dokkaebi Fire and Foxes Once Signaled a Bountiful Harvest (Part 1)

Customs, Rituals, History, Folklore, and Rumors in the Movie 'Pamyo'
The Fox Called 'Yakan', Why 'Kitsune'...
The Original 'Maneki Neko' Was 'Maneki Kitsune'
Was Onmyoji Abe Seimei's Mother a Fox?

The film 'Pamyo' shows the inherent attitude of religion in resolving the anguish of human life and pursuing the ultimate meaning of existence. It embraces the scars of everyone, regardless of generation, gender, nationality, or sect. A series of events feature various customs, rituals, history, folklore, and rumors. At the center is Pungsu (Korean geomancy). As the title suggests, it involves digging into the land. The client is Park Jiyong (Kim Jaecheol), the grandson of a pro-Japanese bureaucrat. He believes that the ancestral grave has been disturbed, negatively affecting his descendants. The Pungsu master Kim Sangdeok (Choi Min-sik) immediately recognizes it as an evil site (惡地). He refuses to proceed, warning that mishandling it could lead to a family tragedy. However, he changes his mind after a heartfelt plea: "Please save my son."

The ensuing dangers and fears are vividly recreated through the intersection of time and space. For example, the spirit resembling an Oni (a Japanese yokai) appearing in the latter part is thoroughly exploited after death. The line urging to advance north and the explanation that he was beheaded at the Battle of Sekigahara evoke Konishi Yukinaga. He was a daimyo baptized as Augustino after entering Catholicism in childhood. He refused to commit seppuku due to religious beliefs and was ridiculed. It is said his head was hung high after beheading, and his body was buried separately. In 'Pamyo,' he is interred in Daitogu but was exhumed during the Japanese colonial period and moved to Goseong, Gangwon Province. Sealed in a coffin with a sword pierced through his spine, he becomes an iron stake. The tragic background and resolution process conceal the history of Korea and Japan as well as the roots and essence of commoner culture. They serve as clues to explore a broader world and open paths to understanding.

'Did you know?' provides useful information in a casual manner. It is a tip for enjoying movies and series more interestingly.

*Famous yokai in Japan include foxes, tengu, raccoon dogs, kappa, snakes, and oni. Foxes are considered shapeshifting animals. They sometimes help people but are also depicted as yokai that torment men. They also appear as messengers of gods overseeing agriculture or commerce. Those who serve them well receive blessings.

*In Japan, snakes often transform into women or yokai to bewitch people. They frequently appear in stories where they seek revenge if wishes are not granted.

*Oni, written as 鬼 in Chinese characters, differ in image from Korean ghosts. They are mainly associated with restless spirits but can sometimes be omniscient and terrifying like gods. They have a multifaceted nature, sometimes deceiving people and sometimes bringing blessings.

*Modern Japanese perceive oni as large-bodied yokai with brightly colored skin in red, black, or blue. They wear loincloths made of tiger skin and wield iron clubs or hammers. This image was standardized through their appearance in Setsubun (spring festival) rituals.

*During Setsubun, families scatter beans inside and outside the house to invite fortune. They shout, "Fortune in, oni out." Oni symbolize beings to be expelled outside, and the term is also used metaphorically for ruthless and merciless people or those obsessed with something.

*The Korean words corresponding to oni are gwishin (ghost) and dokkaebi (goblin). Considering common characteristics, dokkaebi is closer. In everyday life, the word dokkaebi is used to exaggerate absurd or indescribable people or events. Its etymology differs significantly from oni. The earliest recorded use of dokkaebi in Korean literature is in the 15th-century works 'Seokbosangjeol' and 'Wolinseokbo.'

*Dokkaebi is a compound of 'dot' + 'gabi.' 'Dot' means fire or seed, symbolizing abundance. 'Abi' refers to father or adult male, as seen in words like 'jangmul-aebi' and 'Cheoyong-abi.' This indicates that dokkaebi was traditionally a divine figure bringing blessings in an agrarian society.

*Japan has a game similar to Korean hide-and-seek called Onigokko. It originated from ritual ceremonies offered to gods and gradually became a children's game separated from religious faith.

*There is a Japanese saying 'Oni no K?enbutsu' (Oni's public prayer). It is used to describe people who are heartless and ruthless but pretend to be merciful outwardly. This proverb is based on the terrifying and merciless nature of oni.

*There is also a saying 'like cutting off an oni's neck,' which metaphorically expresses great joy as if achieving a remarkable feat. It is used when someone is very proud of something that others may not consider significant. Since cutting off an oni's neck is nearly impossible, accomplishing it is considered extraordinary.

*The phrase 'Even oni won't eat you if you ask nicely' is also commonly used. Although oni are fearsome beings that eat people, if befriended and appeased, they show mercy and do not capture or eat them. This expression uses oni as a contrasting element to convey that sincere understanding leads to mutual comprehension.

*During the Kamakura period, Buddhism increased its lay followers among commoners by teaching that bad deeds lead to hell and severe punishment. Many scroll paintings from that time depict oni torturing the dead under the orders of King Enma.

*Some oni are recognized as gods protecting Buddhism. There are many legends of famous monks being guided by oni when building temples. Indeed, oni tiles and other representations are found in Japanese temples as guardians of Buddhist law.

*A key figure in Edo-period yokai studies is Toriyama Sekien (1712?1788). He was the teacher of the famous bijin-ga (beautiful women paintings) artist Kitagawa Utamaro but left almost no ukiyo-e (multicolor woodblock prints). What remains are yokai picture books such as 'Hyakki Yagy?,' 'Soku Hyakki,' 'Hyakki Sh?yu,' and 'Kaid? Hyakki D?ry?.' 'Hyakki' refers to numerous yokai, so 'Hyakki Yagy?' depicts a hundred ghosts and goblins walking the night streets.

*The Toj?ji legend tells of a woman who transformed into a snake. Long ago, a monk (Anchin) visited a certain household annually. The family had a daughter named Kiyohime. Her father threatened to marry her off to the monk whenever she misbehaved. After repeated jokes, the daughter believed she must marry the monk when grown. One day, the monk visited, and the daughter urgently asked when he would take her away. Startled, the monk fled to the temple that night. The next morning, the daughter, feeling rejected, pursued him. The river near the temple had swollen from last night's rain, impassable for a woman. Driven by resentment, she began crossing. Midway, her body slowly transformed into a snake. Upon reaching Toj?ji, the monk hid inside the bell. The woman coiled around the bell and burned the man hiding inside. In Japanese folklore, snakes are equivalent to dragons. As a dragon, she breathed fire to kill the monk. In Noh (Japanese masked drama) based on this story, the woman-turned-snake is called 'Oni-onna' or 'Nure-onna.'

*The idea of humans transforming into snakes is not unique to Japan but is notable for its depiction based on Japanese cultural traditions.

*Japan's first Buddhist folklore collection, 'Nihon Ry?iki,' formally titled 'Nihon Koku Genb? Zen'aku Ry?iki,' contains many stories about retribution for evil deeds in this world and mysterious, miraculous tales. The most famous story is about the 'Kitsune' (fox). During Emperor Kinmei's reign, a man from ?no village set out to meet a beautiful woman. He met such a woman by chance, brought her home, married her, and had a son. The household dog gave birth to puppies the same day. The dog always bared its teeth and barked at the woman. The woman asked her husband to kill the dog, but he was too fond of it. One day, while pounding rice, the woman entered the mill to give treats to other women working there. Suddenly, the mother dog chased and barked as if to bite her. Startled, the woman transformed into a fox and fled. She climbed a wooden perch (called 'hai') on the ceiling and refused to come down. Seeing this, the man said to the fox, "Aren't we married and have a child? I will never forget you. Come anytime. Let's be together." Since then, the man called the woman 'Kitsune' (meaning 'come and sleep').

*In Japan, foxes were once called 'Yakan,' but with the spread of Nihon Ry?iki folklore, 'Kitsune' became the common term. Foxes are natural predators of mountain rabbits and field mice, beneficial to farmers. They were originally considered gods overseeing food, grains, and mountains. There are about 30,000 Inari shrines today that worship foxes as messengers of the god Inari. However, influenced by the Chinese geography book 'Shanhaijing' introduced around the late 9th century, foxes began to be seen as yin or demon water spirits. Even now, they are widely perceived as cunning animals that deceive humans. The Taoist textbook 'Daogao Supozi' refers to the fox spirit as 'Youhu (fox yokai),' stating, "When a fox or wildcat reaches 300 years old and becomes a Youhu, it learns the magic to transform into a human. This magic involves placing a human skull on the head and worshipping the Big Dipper."

*Inari Daimy?jin is the god of grains. Foxes were once considered his messengers. A superstition spread that offering fried tofu and making wishes would bring a bountiful harvest. People believed foxes liked fried tofu because their fur color resembled it. In Japanese udon shops, you can often hear orders like "One fox, please" or "One raccoon dog, please." This superstition holds that foxes like fried tofu, and raccoon dogs like tempura bits (small fried flour scraps).

*Fox yokai have two main natures: one that enters human bodies causing illness, and another that deceives humans. The former is represented by the term 'Kitsunetsuki,' meaning possessed by a fox spirit, believing oneself to be a fox, exhibiting strange speech or behavior. A famous Kitsunetsuki story is 'Otoragitsune,' orally transmitted around Nagashino. Foxes watched the battle from a watchtower but were hit by shrapnel, losing sight in the left eye and injuring the left foot. People possessed by Otoragitsune are said to have eye discharge from the left eye and pain in the left foot.

*Japanese onmy?ji (yin-yang masters) and esoteric Buddhists used to smoke pine needles or have fearful dogs lick the possessed person to exorcise fox spirits. They also made the person walk over fire or poured hot water on them.

*Expressions derived from the fox's deceptive nature include 'Kitsunebi' and 'Kitsune no Yomeiri.' The former refers to mysterious lights seen in the mountains and fields at night, similar to will-o'-the-wisps, believed to be fox fire. The latter describes a procession of many Kitsunebi resembling a lantern parade.

*Japan has 'Maneki Neko,' a cat figurine with its right paw raised, beckoning people. It is placed in front of shops or at cash registers to invite many customers. Originally, it was not a cat but a fox. People believed Inari would prosper their business, so they placed 'Maneki Kitsune' in front of shops. The Japanese government banned making sacred fox dolls for commoners, so doll makers replaced the fox with a cat, establishing the current 'Maneki Neko.'

*The documentary film 'Kitakitsune Monogatari' was released in Japanese theaters in 1978. As the title suggests, it deals with the fox 'Kitakitsune' inhabiting Hokkaido. It was the first major animal-focused documentary in Japan, gaining attention and box office success. Kitakitsune and Retfu crossed to Hokkaido on ice floes, raising their young in a harsh land. The production deeply portrays the imminent separation from the young and their fates after independence. The narrative is told through the perspective of an oak tree. In the harsh natural environment, offspring born with congenital disabilities, weak bodies, inability to catch prey, or caught in human traps die one after another. The mother also dies in a trap. Hardships continue as snowmobile hunters relentlessly pursue them. Humans appear as thoroughly cruel villains. Many Japanese, including children, wept at the sight of the bloodied dying foxes.

*In Korean ancient texts, the term yokai appears only once in the 'Samguk Sagi' during the third year of King Chadae of Goguryeo. The subject was a white fox. The term 'yosu' was also used simultaneously.

*Korea does not have various types of yokai. Instead, such attributes were assigned to dokkaebi. Dokkaebi prefer gloomy places and appear during dusk or drizzling rain. They manifest as will-o'-the-wisps and bear the traits of gwishin (ghosts). Confused with gwishin, dokkaebi began to appear as malevolent spirits causing epidemics, bewitching people, and causing fires.

*Dokkaebi fire is described as 'gwihwa' (ghost fire) in Seonghyeon's 'Yongjaechonghwa,' referring to blue flames that spontaneously appear at night in graves, damp ground, old trees, or dilapidated houses. The gwihwa appearing then was not considered beneficial. Seonghyeon's uncle An Buyun was said to have been frightened by numerous gwihwa on a rainy, gloomy day. However, dokkaebi fire does not always bring bad luck. At sea, fishing was abundant where dokkaebi fire appeared, a popular folk belief along the west and south coasts. On land, rural areas used dokkaebi fire to predict bad weather. In Busan, on Lunar New Year's Eve, people predicted a good harvest based on dokkaebi fire at night. If the fire appeared on the mountain side, that village was believed to have a bountiful harvest. In Gwangju, if dokkaebi fire played at high places, drought was expected; if at low places, abundant water and a good harvest. In Naju, Jeollanam-do, a large, blazing dokkaebi fire roaming the fields on the 15th day of the first lunar month was believed to bring a good harvest.

*Debates about whether dokkaebi personifications are human or oni-like continue. A notable example is the 'Red Devils' figure popular during the 2002 World Cup. There were suggestions to replace it with oni faces or gwimyeonwa (decorative tiles depicting ghost faces). Except for such distorted cases, dokkaebi are mostly depicted as humans.

*Dokkaebi inherently possess divine attributes. However, they have undergone changes over time. They acquired functions such as bewitching people and acting as malevolent spirits, traits of ghosts. Nevertheless, they have not lost their divine nature. They coexist with other attributes. In contrast, yokai are understood as a type of god with negative aspects.

*The history of Taoism's transmission to Japan is long. Around the 6th century, astronomy, calendar science, and divination were introduced from Baekje. Subsequently, based on yin-yang and five elements theory, onmy?d? (yin-yang way) was established, practicing geomancy, fortune-telling, and exorcism. Research on the essence, history, and characteristics of onmy?d? centered on the representative onmy?ji Abeno Seimei accumulated. Notably, studies on yokai and Taoism do not merely explore ancient culture but also involve manga artists, novelists, and film directors addressing contemporary cultural phenomena, leading to industrialization.

*Hayao Miyazaki's film 'Spirited Away' (2001) features many yokai. The procession of yokai from all over Japan gathering at the hot spring resembles scenes from 'Hyakki Yagy?.' However, paintings depicting such yokai processions existed earlier in China. Representative works include 'Huashangshi' from the Han dynasty and 'Zhongshan Chuyou Tu' from the Southern Song dynasty. A clear difference is that Chinese paintings often depict hybrids of humans and animals, while Japanese ones mainly show mutants?variants of humans or objects.

*Director Yojiro Takita's film 'Onmyoji' (2001) tells the story of the famous Heian-period sorcerer Abe Seimei fighting yokai and spirits to protect the imperial family. It is based on Yumemakura Baku's best-selling novel 'Onmyoji' (1988). The film features various Taoist magic such as transformation, divination, talismans, exorcism, and soul summoning.

*A story related to Abe Seimei is passed down in Japan. During Emperor Murakami's reign, a young man named Setsuna lived in Sesshu Abenoky?. His father, Abe Horome, was a local lord. The Abe family was prestigious, with ancestor Amano Nakamaro being an early envoy to Tang China during the Nara period. However, during Horome's generation, the family lost all its lands due to fraud. The family possessed astronomical secret books on yin-yang and onmy?d? passed down through generations. Setsuna was eager to study them but had no time due to efforts to revive the family. To restore the family, he visited the My?shin shrine monthly, located in Shinodanomori forest. The forest was dark even at noon, tangled with kudzu vines and full of foxes. One day, Setsuna went to the forest with several attendants. While chatting, they heard barking dogs and human voices from the forest. When the attendants stood to investigate, two white foxes ran into a tent, entering one entrance and exiting another, then disappearing outside. A white fox cub followed but seemed exhausted and froze before Setsuna. It appeared the two white foxes were its parents. Setsuna hid the cub in his long sleeves. Several hunting dogs barked fiercely and rushed in. Soon, a group of warriors arrived, demanding the fox. "The fox escaped here? Hand it over now." "This is sacred ground; killing is inappropriate." "What did you say?" One warrior drew a long sword to strike Setsuna, who also drew his sword to defend. Suddenly, a voice shouted, "Stop!" A monk stood there?Yorinori, the head priest of Kawachi Province's Fujiji Temple, who had converted the Tsunehira family to Buddhism. Tsunehira was shocked. "Head priest, what brings you here?" "Killing in sacred grounds is forbidden. Lower your swords and explain yourselves." Tsunehira explained the situation but was reprimanded and agreed to entrust Setsuna to the priest. After confirming Tsunehira's departure, the priest untied Setsuna and said, "Actually, I am the white fox you just saved." He then transformed back into a fox cub and ran into the forest. Setsuna, injured, prepared to return to Abenoky? village. Thirsty from battle, he searched for water and found a young woman drawing water by a stream. She carried a shoulder pole but slipped and fell into the water. Despite his pain, Setsuna helped her. Grateful, she took him to a hermitage behind the mountain to treat his wounds. Though intending to leave soon, he stayed day after day due to her devoted care. Eventually, he lived there seven years with her and had a son named Abeno Toji. Years passed, and one autumn, Setsuna had become a local. While he plowed fields, his wife wove cloth at home. Surrounded by chrysanthemums he carefully cultivated, the scent overwhelmed her. Suddenly, she heard a scream behind her: "Ah, I'm so scared!" Awakening, she saw Toji crying and realized she had revealed her true fox form, bewitched by the chrysanthemum scent. Filled with regret, she left a waka (traditional Japanese poem) on the hermitage's paper door: "When you remember me, come to Shinodanomori forest in Izumi and seek Kuzunoha." She then disappeared. Toji, suddenly losing his mother, cried loudly. Seeing the waka, Setsuna carried Toji to Shinodanomori forest, where his wife appeared. "I was originally a fox living in Shinodanomori forest. Seven years ago, you saved me, and to repay your kindness, we married. But now that our child knows my true form, I cannot face you both. Please care for our child in my stead." She gave Toji a wisdom jewel and vanished like smoke. This Toji is the onmy?ji Abe Seimei.

References: Park Jeon-yeol et al., Han Nuri Media, 'The Origin and Cultural Industrial Function of Japanese Yokai Culture' (2005); Kim Yong-ui, Jeonnam National University Press, 'The Folkloric World of Japanese Folktales' (2013); Moro Miya, translated by Kim Kyung-ah, Ilbit, 'Legend Japan' (2010); Cheon In-ho, Sejong Publishing, 'Understanding Pungsu Thought' (1999); Nozaki Mitsuhiko, Dongdowon, 'Korean Pungsu Masters' (2000); Lee Seok-jeong, Park Chae-yang, Choi Joo-dae, Brain Books, 'Properly Honoring Ancestors Leads to Prosperous Descendants' (2007); Son Sook-hee, National Institute of Korean Studies, 'Ordinary People's Stories of Shamanism' (1997); Hong Tae-han, Minsokwon, 'The World of Our Shamanic Rituals' (2009); Kim Hee-young, Minsokwon, 'Murayama Jisun's Perception of Joseon through Folk Customs Research' (2014); Murayama Jisun, translated by Choi Soon-ae and Yoshimura Mika, Sina Publishing, 'Life and Death of Koreans in the 1920s-1930s' (2014); Murayama Jisun, translated by Choi Seok-young, Minsokwon, 'Encyclopedia of Modern Korean Folklore Anthropology 2: Joseon's Pungsu' (2008); Iwata Shigenori, translated by Jo Gyu-heon, Sohwa, 'The Birth of Japanese Funeral Culture' (2009); Jang Yoon-sun, Isup, 'Joseon's Scholar Ghosts and Communication' (2008); Park Tae-ho, Seohae Munjip, 'History of Funerals' (2006); Yoo Jae-cheol, Kim Young-sa, 'The President's Embalmer' (2022); Kim Young-min, Saemunsa, 'Understanding Our Ancestral Faith' (2005), etc.