[In Fact] Awarded a Military Medal but Had No Voting Rights (Part 2)

Issues with Tribal Land Individual Allotment 'Dawes Act'
US Native Americans Drafted 30,000 in World War II
Federal Government Granted Citizenship but Ended Special Support

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*Following

*The Dawes Act (General Allotment Act), enacted in 1887 by the signature of President Cleveland, aimed to dissolve tribal communal land ownership by allotting land to individuals and to make Native Americans comply with state laws. It mainly focused on fostering self-sufficient small-scale farmers to reduce government expenditure on Native Americans and distributing the remaining land to white settlers. The original drafter, Senator Dawes, was relatively sympathetic to Native Americans. He led Native American support groups composed of whites and earnestly worked for the civilization of Native Americans. For example, when drafting this law, he stipulated that land could only be allotted to individuals if at least two-thirds of adult males in a tribe agreed. However, Dawes' opinions were ignored during the legislative process.

*Native Americans were not unaware of the hidden intentions of the Dawes Act, but having lost everything and being entirely dependent on the mercy of whites, they found it difficult to resist. In 1926, Secretary of the Interior Work received support from the Rockefeller Foundation to commission the Brookings Institution to conduct a study on the implementation of Native American policies and the living conditions of Native Americans. The report was completed in 1928 and was named the "Merriam Report" after the lead researcher. This report emphasized that the land allotment policy was being abused to illegally seize Native American lands. After intense debate, Congress enacted the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934, which ended the life of the Dawes Act.

*The official title of the Merriam Report was "Problems of Indian Administration." Experts from various fields, including Merriam, conducted an in-depth analysis of Native Americans' health, economy, education, and living conditions, identifying problems and proposing solutions. The 847-page report pointed out that the Dawes Act accelerated Native American poverty and criticized the boarding school system, which disregarded Native American culture.

*According to the Merriam Report, the average life expectancy of Native Americans at the time was very short, and infant mortality was very high. Infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and trachoma were widespread, but medical facilities were severely lacking. Even where facilities existed, communication with doctors was poor. The research team saw the fundamental cause as food supply shortages stemming from the flawed land allotment policy under the Dawes Act. The lands allotted to Native Americans were generally unsuitable for cultivation. Even skilled white farmers barely managed to sustain their livelihoods on such land.

*The research team also analyzed that the frequent changes in economic policies toward Native Americans with each administration made their economy difficult from a long-term perspective. Education was cited as the primary solution. They advocated that education should take place within tribal life rather than in isolated boarding schools. They also emphasized the need to correct problems in boarding schools such as poor meals, unsanitary conditions, reliance on student labor, and uniform curricula. President Herbert Hoover accepted these recommendations and increased related budgets. However, the Dawes Act continued until the Indian Reorganization Act was enacted in 1934. The boarding school system also persisted due to the lack of suitable alternatives. By the 1970s, the number of students reached 60,000.

*The Merriam Report contained eleven major recommendations: ▲ repeal of the Dawes Act ▲ recognition of Native American tribal self-government ▲ immediate cessation of land distribution under the Dawes Act ▲ financial support for tribal agriculture and other enterprises ▲ establishment of tribal judicial bodies to handle general crimes rather than federal crimes ▲ restoration of individually allotted lands to tribal communal ownership ▲ implementation of vocational training ▲ establishment of complete sanitation facilities and health departments ▲ strengthening of the education system ▲ creation of organizations to promote Native American traditional arts and culture ▲ guarantee of free missionary activities.

*The Indian Reorganization Act, prepared after the submission of the Merriam Report, mainly focused on repealing the Dawes Act and rebuilding tribal self-government. It led to various efforts to restore tribal lands lost due to land allotment. The federal government first returned lands held in trust by the U.S. government but allotted to individuals back to tribal ownership. Furthermore, it purchased lands to incorporate them into tribal lands. Thanks to this, Native Americans secured about 8,000 km² of tribal land?equivalent to the size of Chungcheongnam-do province?within 20 years after the Indian Reorganization Act was implemented.

*1929 marked the start of the Great Depression, the greatest crisis for American capitalism. The middle class lost savings due to bank failures, workers starved due to unemployment, and farmers had to stop farming. President Hoover was preoccupied with relief measures for the depression, which stalled all proposals regarding Native American policies. Discussions resumed only after Franklin Roosevelt was elected president. With the New Deal policy declaring relief for ordinary citizens, farmers, and workers, he also showed interest in Native Americans. In 1933, he halted the sale of Native American lands and implemented measures to increase educational opportunities as part of improving Native American living conditions. He also requested Congress to enact the Indian Reorganization Act, known as the "Indian New Deal," as a device for rebuilding Native American society.

*On December 7, 1941, 105 Japanese bombers attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, sinking warships and destroying aircraft. President Roosevelt immediately requested a declaration of war, which Congress accepted almost unanimously (one dissenting vote). The U.S. shifted to a wartime footing, concentrating all national power on the war effort. Over 30,000 Native Americans registered for the draft. Of these, 24,521 joined the Army, about 2,000 joined the Navy, and over 850 participated in other military duties. Native American soldiers fought bravely. Notably, over 400 Navajo youths received special code training. They used the Navajo language as an unbreakable code in the Pacific theater, achieving remarkable success. For example, "baby eagle" meant dive bomber, "two stars" meant Army major general, and "whale" meant warship.

*When Native American soldiers returned to their designated residences after the war, nothing had changed. Discrimination persisted. They were first-class citizens on the battlefield but relegated to second-class citizens at home. Especially in New Mexico and Arizona, Native Americans were denied voting rights. Even those who received the nation's highest honors faced the same treatment. Although 206 received the Medal of Honor, they endured a despairing homecoming. Most were disappointed and disillusioned with American society.

*After World War II, the U.S. developed an atmosphere of patriotism, anti-communist ideology, McCarthyism, and collectivism. This movement led to calls for assimilating all minorities into mainstream society. Native Americans were no exception. The federal government, needing to reduce budget expenditures to repay war debts, decreased economic support for Native Americans to reduce financial burdens.

*If the assimilation policies of the late 19th century, such as boarding schools and land allotment, were the groundwork for integrating Native Americans into mainstream society, the mid-20th-century assimilation policies were the main construction. Hence, the term "termination" rather than assimilation was used in policy names. Termination meant the complete dissolution of Native American tribal nations, i.e., non-recognition of tribal sovereignty. Before termination policies, Native Americans were members of federally recognized tribal nations, in a guardian-ward relationship with the U.S. government, receiving support in education, healthcare, and other areas. After termination, they gained the same rights and duties as general U.S. citizens but lost special support. This policy was partially successful but caused far more harm. Calls for improvement were made repeatedly. Fortunately, the civil rights movement starting in the 1960s and Native American activist human rights organizations fostered an atmosphere to abolish racial discrimination and recognize cultural diversity, leading to policies that restored tribal self-governance.

*President Richard Nixon issued a proclamation on Native American issues in July 1970. The content was as follows: "The first Americans, the Indians, are the poorest and most isolated minority in our country. They remain at the lowest levels in employment, income, education, health, and other areas. This is the result of centuries of injustice. Since contact with European colonists began, Indians have suffered cruel atrocities including oppression, abuse, land seizure, and deprivation of all opportunities. Policies enacted at the request of Indians often failed to meet their original purposes and were ineffective. Indian history is a record of ruthless invasion by whites, broken treaties, long years without reflection, disappointment, and frustration. But that is not all. Indians have created an immortal history of overcoming the worst obstacles with resilience and creativity. Indians have made significant contributions to our country’s arts, culture, spirit, historical sense, and sense of mission across all sectors of society. The federal government has long recognized Indian abilities and wisdom and developed policies to strengthen them. However, for better policy formulation and effectiveness, we must start new activities based on what Indians have long demanded. Now, more than anything, we must resolutely break with the past and create progressive conditions so that the future of Indians can be determined by their own actions and will." With this declaration, Nixon became the first federal president in U.S. history to recognize Native American self-determination.

*Kevin Gover, Director of the Bureau of Indian Affairs under the U.S. Department of the Interior, delivered a searing self-reflection speech at the 175th anniversary ceremony on September 8, 2000. It was a groundbreaking and shocking event. The main points were: "In March 1824, President Monroe established the Bureau of Indian Affairs under the War Department. This year, marking its 175th anniversary, also welcomes a new millennium. Our leaders must thoroughly analyze the problems before us and seek solutions to challenges. Looking back at what we have done in the past, the 175th anniversary is a time for reflection rather than celebration. From its inception, the Bureau of Indian Affairs served as a tool for the U.S. to achieve ambitions against Indian will. Its first mission was to remove Indians from their homelands. Thousands died along the 1,000-mile Trail of Tears. As America began to pioneer the West, Indians living there faced tremendous hardships. Deliberate spreading of diseases, extermination of buffalo herds, providing alcohol with malicious intent to weaken Indians physically and mentally, and massacres of women and children cannot be dismissed as mere cultural clashes; the crimes are too grave. The Bureau and its staff failed to prevent these destructive acts. Thus, great Indian nations and patriotic warriors fell. We will not forget unnecessary and violent massacres at Sand Creek, Washita River, and Wounded Knee. All these events devastated Indian economies, making them dependent on the U.S. government and destroying all things Indian. We silenced Indian languages, banned traditional religions, outlawed Indian governments, and made Indians ashamed of their identity. The worst was placing children in Indian boarding schools where they suffered emotional, psychological, physical, and spiritual abuse. The trauma of shame, fear, and anger has been passed down through generations, manifesting as alcoholism, drug addiction, domestic violence, and suicide. We caused these Indian problems. Indian poverty, ignorance, and disease are the responsibility of our Bureau of Indian Affairs. I do not speak for America nor on its behalf, but I have the authority to speak for the Bureau, which employs 10,000 people. First and foremost, I express deep condolences for the wrongs we committed in the past. Thinking about these wrongs and their consequences pains my heart. We cannot undo the past, so as a representative of the Bureau, I offer an official apology. These wrongs were not committed by our current staff, but recognizing and correcting this wrongful legacy is a strong moral obligation. We intend to start new important work for Indian hope and prosperity. Our Bureau will never remain silent when hatred or violence against Indians occurs. We will not tolerate policies based on assumptions that Indians are intellectually inferior. We will never allow the seizure of Indian property again nor appoint wrong leaders against tribal interests. We reject any depiction of Indians that could foster misconceptions. We will never again attack Indian languages, religions, ceremonies, or ways of life, nor take children away to make them ashamed of being Indian. Our sins are too heavy to ask for forgiveness. What we hope for is to begin healing together. When Indians return home and talk with their tribes, please tell them the era of death is over and to tell their children the era of shame and fear has passed. Tell the youth to turn anger into hope and love. Together, let us wipe away tears spanning seven generations and heal wounded hearts. When future leaders speak of the Bureau’s history, let them celebrate that the Bureau was reborn for Indian nations in the name of joy, freedom, and progress. The Bureau was born during the Indian-white wars in 1824, but from 2000 onward, we hope it will live as a tool for Indian prosperity."

*President Barack Obama signed a bill including the "Apology Resolution to Native Americans" on December 9, 2009.

*According to federal statistics, the Native American population in the U.S. was about 2.4 million in 2000, roughly 1% of the total U.S. population. Their holdings are located on barren lands. Most of the western plains and forest areas are designated as state parks or federally owned national forests. The desolate sandy lands outside these fertile forest areas are mainly designated as Native American holdings. About 500,000 Native Americans live there. For over a century, they have lived in the poorest conditions among all ethnic groups in the U.S. and remain trapped in a vicious cycle. Chronic unemployment still reaches 50-60%. Housing mostly consists of huts, temporary structures, abandoned buses, and cars. Most rely on river or underground spring water due to lack of potable water. Unsanitary and unhygienic living conditions cause various fatal diseases. The average life expectancy of Native Americans is 45 years, 27 years lower than the U.S. average of 72. Disease problems are recognized as serious social issues. Syphilis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, dysentery, and infectious conjunctivitis are widespread. Since the 1980s, AIDS has also spread. Despite the prevalence of diseases, lack of medical facilities prevents adequate prevention or treatment.

*Corruption is rarely eradicated on Native American holdings. Especially, welfare subsidies from the federal government are not properly delivered due to corruption in Native American administrative authorities. Tribal councils, as autonomous bodies, have degenerated into puppet organizations engaging in embezzlement, misappropriation of supplies, and bribery. Native Americans who have left the holdings to live in cities or rural areas also live in poverty. Currently, over one million live in slums of general society, including large cities.

*Signs of revival are emerging in Native American society. Members judge that problems cannot be solved solely by federal or external help and are making various efforts. For example, some farms have mechanized cultivation, and some ranch managers have earned significant income through successful livestock farming. The tourism sector also generates considerable revenue through hotels, ski resorts, and handicraft sales. However, absenteeism, laziness, and incompetence among Native American workers negatively affect productivity, putting them at a disadvantage against external competitors.

*The most promising sector in the Native American economy is underground resources. Vast quantities of oil, coal, natural gas, uranium, zircon, limestone, and copper await development on barren lands. The luckiest tribe is the Navajo in Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. Their lands contain large deposits of coal, oil, and uranium. The Navajo have long leased these resources to white companies, receiving royalties and mining fees. Oil alone generates over $100 million annually in royalties. The Navajo reinvest these funds into various industries, achieving economic revival. They have also established their own university, developing it into a higher education institution for tribal members.

*Native Americans have long transferred natural resource development rights to white companies for ridiculously low prices. In 1975, they established the Tribal Energy Resource Committee to mark a turning point. They prevented oil tycoons from exploiting oil development rights at unfair prices. They formed relationships with OPEC to avoid unfavorable pressures on oil development. Native Americans expect underground resources to play a significant role in economic development. In fact, indigenous peoples, including Eskimos in Alaska, have escaped poverty through oil resource development.

References: Yeochihyun, Indian Village Republic (2012), published by Humanist; Yeochihyun, Indian Autonomous Republic (2017), published by Ihaksa; Kim Cheol, The Path of Indians (2015), published by Sechang Media; Yoon Sanghwan, History of American Indian Struggles (2003), published by Medline, etc.