[War & Business] The Origin of Seondal

The scene of the military examination held in Gilju, Hamgyeong Province in 1664, depicted in the historical painting "Bukseseon-eundo," showing the military examination site
[Image source=National Museum of Korea website]

[Asia Economy Reporter Hyunwoo Lee] 'Bongi Kim Seondal,' widely known as a notorious swindler of the Joseon Dynasty in folk tales, is often mistaken to have the real name Kim Seondal, but his actual name is said to be Kim Inhong. The term Seondal referred to those who passed the military examination in the late Joseon period but failed to obtain an official post and instead engaged in other occupations or lived as unemployed individuals.

While Seondal were very few in the early Joseon period, their numbers rapidly increased from the 17th century. Starting from the reign of King Gwanghaegun, right after the Imjin War, the king held irregular military examinations annually to appease public sentiment, passing most of the 5,000 to over 10,000 examinees, resulting in a mass production of Seondal. In the case of King Sukjong, the 19th monarch of Joseon, he passed more than 18,000 candidates in 1676 to commemorate the second year of his reign. This number greatly exceeded the originally fixed 28 successful candidates. Because more than ten thousand passed, these irregular exams were called 'Mangwa' (Ten-Thousand Exam).

The subjects of Mangwa varied according to the king's mood on the day. It was common to have examinees shoot arrows on the spot and pass everyone who hit 10 shots, or if the king was in a good mood, to pass all examinees present at the exam site. Compared to the regular military examination, which required written tests and practical exams such as spear fighting, swordsmanship, horseback riding, and matchlock shooting, these were hardly worthy of being called exams. In the late Joseon period, Mangwa were also held during royal celebrations such as weddings or sixtieth birthdays, and the number of Seondal increased significantly every year. Over the 500 years of the Joseon Dynasty, the number of military examination passers grew to 150,000, more than three times the number of civil examination passers, largely due to Mangwa.

Until the 17th century, after the Imjin War and the Manchu invasions, many soldiers had died in the wars, so Seondal who entered through Mangwa could be employed as regular soldiers. However, from the 18th century, when postwar reconstruction was completed, the number of Seondal increased rapidly beyond the available positions, becoming a social problem. Seondal had to bribe central government officials to be appointed as formal soldiers, and by the late 19th century, near the end of the Joseon Dynasty, the court openly engaged in the sale and purchase of military posts targeting Seondal, even publicly announcing the prices of official positions.

Dasan Jeong Yak-yong mentioned Mangwa and Seondal as one of the major harms that ruined Joseon's national defense system in his book 'Mokminsimseo.' This context also explains why Bongi Kim Seondal was so obsessed with money that he had to deceive people by selling the water of the Daedong River.