[Lee Sang-hoon's Korean History] "Who Would Not Be a King When Serving Someone?" Jeong Yeorip and the Daedong Society

Teacher Yi Yi accused of betrayal, disliked by King Seonjo... Ambition to overthrow regime by force denying royal authority
In 1585, formed Daedonggye in hometown Jeonju... Gathered followers to study academics and martial arts in preparation
In 1589, seized armory and dreamed of rebellion... Plan leaked to government troops, committed suicide at Jinan Jukdo

Sanghoon Lee, Professor at the Korea Military Academy

On October 1, 1589 (the 22nd year of King Seonjo's reign), a heavy silence filled the Joseon court as several high-ranking officials gathered. Soon, King Seonjo asked, "Who is Yeorip (汝立)?" Yeonguijeong Yoo Jeon (柳琠) and Jwauijeong Lee Sanhae (李山海) replied, "We do not know much about his character." Uuijeong Jeong Eonshin (鄭彦信) said, "I only know that he is a scholar; I do not know anything else." Seonjo threw down the report he was holding and angrily exclaimed, "Is this how a scholar behaves?"

In 1589, the rebellion incident involving Jeong Yeorip (鄭汝立) shook Joseon to its core. This occurred three years before the outbreak of the Imjin War, and Jeong Yeorip's rebellion is indirectly linked to the war's outbreak. Jeong Yeorip denied King Seonjo's royal authority and attempted to overthrow the regime by force but was discovered in advance and committed suicide. It is known that about 1,000 people were implicated and sacrificed in connection with Jeong Yeorip.

This incident remained a subject of controversy throughout the late Joseon period regarding the authenticity of the rebellion and the punishment of those involved. Even among contemporary historians, perspectives on this event differ. However, the fact of Jeong Yeorip's rebellion is generally acknowledged. So, what plan did Jeong Yeorip have to stage a coup by force?

Jeong Yeorip was from Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do, and passed the civil service examination at a relatively young age, entering government service. He was recognized for his talent by Yulgok Yi I (李珥). He held prestigious central government positions such as Hongmungwan Suchan (修撰) and gained considerable reputation in the bureaucratic society of the time.

For reasons unknown, after Yi I's death, Jeong Yeorip was severely ostracized by King Seonjo on suspicion of betraying his mentor Yi I. There were attempts to reinstate Jeong Yeorip, but Seonjo repeatedly refused. Jeong Yeorip himself realized he could achieve nothing under Seonjo and retired to his hometown Jeonju. This was in 1585, four years before the rebellion.

In Jeonju, Jeong Yeorip gathered followers to discuss current affairs of the court. Meanwhile, he devoted himself to teaching and martial arts training. He preached to his followers the words of the Warring States period figure Yu Hahye (柳下惠), who said, "Whom would one serve if not the king?" From this point, he likely began to recognize the contradictions of the Seonjo-centered royal regime and started serious preparations to overthrow it.

To concretize these activities and secure his military base, he organized the Daedonggye (大同契). There are very few related historical records about Daedonggye, making it difficult to grasp its scale and operation clearly.

According to the 'Yeollyeosilgiseol (練藜室記述),' Daedonggye members met once a month on the 15th day (full moon) to study literature and practice archery, horseback riding, and the use of swords and spears. Jeong Yeorip personally provided the necessary funds and food. The members included people from various social classes, including both the yangban (aristocracy) and commoners, without distinction of status. This indicates participation from diverse social strata.

In 1587, the Jeonghae Waebyeon (丁亥倭變) occurred when Japanese pirates invaded Sonjukdo Island in Yeosu, Jeollanam-do. The pirate force was considerable, prompting the court to send defense commanders Byeon Hyeop (邊協) and Shin Rip (申砬). According to the 'Seonjo Sujeong Sillok,' Nam Eon-gyeong (南彦經), the magistrate of Jeonju, failed to organize the troops properly and sought help from Jeong Yeorip. Jeong Yeorip gathered and divided the troops in less than a day.

All their commanders belonged to the Daedonggye organized by Jeong Yeorip. After the enemy retreated and the troops disbanded, Jeong Yeorip instructed the commanders, "If trouble arises in the future, each of you should gather your subordinates and come at once," and personally took one military register.

This suggests that Daedonggye was a quasi-military organization with a solid foundation. Especially, the fact that Jeong Yeorip personally took a military register indicates he was considering future military mobilization.

Jeong Yeorip steadily prepared to overthrow the royal regime centered in his hometown Jeonju. However, the region he most carefully focused on to realize his plan was Hwanghae Province. Since the founding of Joseon, Hwanghae had been a key route for envoys from Ming China and Joseon's tributary diplomatic missions. Therefore, the burdens of tribute and various corv?e labor were heavier there than anywhere else, and the people's discontent was widespread.

During King Myeongjong's reign, the Im Ggeokjeong rebellion (1559?1562) had already occurred in Hwanghae, greatly unsettling public sentiment. Under King Seonjo, complaints against the government from this region did not subside. The court repeatedly expressed the urgent need for measures to comfort the people.

Between 1588 and 1589, Jeong Yeorip used his central government connections to attempt to be appointed as a local official in Hwanghae. His apparent intention was to go directly to the province, use the official authority of a local magistrate to organize discontented groups, and, if necessary, utilize them as military forces. This also meant expanding his power base, Daedonggye, into Hwanghae.

Above all, Hwanghae was strategically valuable for military operations aimed at capturing the capital. During the Injo Restoration in 1623, the army of Lee Gwi (李貴) stationed in Pyeongsan, Hwanghae, quickly moved south and entered the capital, thanks to this military advantage.

If Jeong Yeorip's coup forces rose simultaneously in the south at Jeonju and in Hwanghae, a north-south pincer strategy around the capital would have been established. Of course, this is a simple inference without direct documentary evidence. However, considering various circumstances regarding Hwanghae, it can be understood as part of a rational military strategy.

Jeong Yeorip's attempt to be appointed as a local official in Hwanghae ultimately failed. Nevertheless, the strategic value of the region remained high, and efforts there seemed to continue. Records show that Jeong Yeorip's followers frequently traveled between Jeonju and Hwanghae. They continuously spread prophecies in Hwanghae that a new figure would emerge and a new era would begin.

"A sage will arise in Honam's Jeonju region to save our people. At that time, all water and land regulations, corv?e labor imposed on relatives and neighbors, and the system of forced labor and conscription will be abolished, and laws imprisoning commoners and illegitimate children will be repealed, bringing peace and security to the nation."

This indicates that excessive corv?e labor mobilization, increasing numbers of fugitives, and ongoing discrimination against slaves and illegitimate children were intensifying social contradictions in Hwanghae at the time. Jo Gu (趙球), a follower of Jeong Yeorip, gathered a group and distributed pepper and fans to them, numbering about 100.

After Jeong Yeorip's suicide, during the investigation of the incident, Seong Hon (成渾) wrote in a memorial that the people of Hwanghae lamented that "Jeong Yeorip was said to be immortal," expressing regret that the military uprising did not occur. The first report of Jeong Yeorip's uprising came not from Jeonju but from Hwanghae, which proves that many sympathizers existed there.

As the atmosphere intensified and rumors spread, Jeong Yeorip devised a plan. In the winter when the ice froze, he intended to invade the capital, burn the armory, seize the warehouses, and have his trusted men inside the city respond in coordination. Moreover, he planned to send assassins to kill Shin Rip and the Minister of War, impersonate them, and eliminate the military commander and provincial governors.

He also planned to petition the high officials to dismiss the Jeolla provincial governor and Jeonju magistrate, and take advantage of the resulting confusion to stage the uprising. However, Jeong Yeorip's plan was leaked, and the Joseon government swiftly pursued him. Ultimately, Jeong Yeorip was surrounded by government troops on Jukdo Island in Jinan, Jeollabuk-do, and committed suicide.

One question arises: why did Jeong Yeorip not mobilize the Daedonggye under his command to resist? This seems related to how the Daedonggye was operated. There is a record that provides some insight into this issue. It is a conversation between Jeolla Province Governor Lee Gwang (李洸), who came to Seoul after suppressing Jeong Yeorip's remnants and calming public sentiment, and King Seonjo during the incident.

Seonjo asked, "When the rebellion was discovered, there must have been soldiers and weapons, so why were they never found?" Lee Gwang replied, "Jeong Yeorip always claimed to be a Confucian scholar, so even if he wanted to gather soldiers and buy weapons, it would have been impossible under the circumstances. Therefore, he did not stockpile them in advance."

Seonjo then asked, "So did the rebels plan to start the rebellion empty-handed?" Lee Gwang answered, "It is difficult to fully understand the rebels' cunning plans, but most armories in our country lack defensive walls. Therefore, even if the enemy initially rose with farming tools and suddenly attacked an armory in a county, they would have enough weapons. So, there was no need to prepare in advance." Seonjo found this explanation plausible.

From this conversation, it can be inferred that Jeong Yeorip's Daedonggye was not a standing army like a regular military force. It was not an organization equipped with weapons and always on standby for immediate deployment.

Since Jeong Yeorip usually acted as a Confucian scholar, the Daedonggye organization seems to have been operated as an underground cell network to avoid exposure. They were scattered across various regions, managed as cells, and planned to rise quickly and launch a preemptive strike upon Jeong Yeorip's orders in an emergency. However, due to an unexpected tip-off, Jeong Yeorip was hurriedly pursued and could not properly mobilize the Daedonggye.

Professor of Military History, Korea Military Academy